THE RHEOLOGY HANDBOOK 5% Revised Edition COATINGS bro et 14Thomas G. Mezger The Rheology Handbook For users of rotational and oscillatory rheometers 5" Revised Edition ww VINCENTZ Providing Professional InformationCover: Zifoto - stock.adobe.com Bibliographische Information der Deutschen Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliographie; detaillierte bibliographische Daten sind im Internet iiber http://dnb.ddb.de abrufbar. Mezger, Thomas G. The Rheology Handbook, 5" Revised Edition Hanover: Vincentz Network, 2020 European Coatings Library ISBN 3-86630-532-X ISBN 978-3-86630-532.8 © 2020 Vincentz Network GmbH & Co. KG, Hanover Vincentz Network GmbH & Co. KG, Plathnerstr. 4c, 30175 Hanover, Germany This work is copyrighted, including the individual contributions and figures. Any usage outside the strict limits of copyright law without the consent of the publisher is prohibited and punishable by law. This especially pertains to repro- duction, translation, microfilming and the storage and processing in electronic systems. ‘The information on formulations is based on testing performed to the best of our knowledge. Please ask for our book catalogue Vincentz Network, Plathnerstr. 4c, 30175 Hanover, Germany 7 +49 511 9910-033, F +49 511 9910-029 books @european-coatings.com, www.european-coatings.com Layout: Vincentz Network, Hanover, Germany Printed by: Buchdruck Zentrum, Priim 2European Coatings Library Thomas G. Mezger The Rheology Handbook For users of rotational and oscillatory rheometers 5" Revised EditionForeword Why was this book written? People working in industry are often confronted with the effects of rheology, the science of defor- mation and flow behavior. When looking for appropriate literature, they find either short bro- chures which give only a few details and contain little useful information, or highly specialized books overcharged of physical formulas and mathematical theories. There is a lack of literature between these two extremes which reduces the discussion of theoretical principles to the neces- sary topics, providing useful instructions for experiments on material characterization. This book is intended to fill that gap. The practical use of rheology is presented in the following areas: quality control (QC), produc- tion and application, chemical and mechanical engineering, industrial research and development, and materials science. Emphasis is placed on current testing methods related to daily working practice. After reading this book, the reader should be able to perform useful tests with rotation- al and oscillatory rheometers, and to interpret the achieved results correctly How did this book come into existence? The first computer-controlled rheometers came into use in industrial laboratories in the mid-1980s, Ever since then, test methods as well as control and analysis options have improved with breath-tak- ing speed. In order to organize and clarify the growing mountain of information, company Anton Paar Germany ~ and previously Physica Messtechnik — has offered basic seminars on rheology al- ready since 1988, focused on branch-specific industrial application. During the “European Coatings Show’ in Nuremberg in April 1999, the organizer and publishing director Dr Lothar Vincentz suggested expanding these seminar notes into a comprehensive book about applied rheology. What is the target audience for this book? For which industrial branches will it be most interesting? The Rheology Handbook is written for everyone approaching rheology without any prior know|- edge but is also useful to people wishing to update their expertise with information about recent, developments. The reader can use the book as a course book and read from beginning to end or as a reference book for selected chapters. The numerous cross-references make connections clear and the detailed index helps when searching. If required, the book can be used as the first step on the ladder towards theory orientated rheology books at university level. In order to break up the text, there are as well many figures and tables, illustrative examples and small practical experi- ments, as well as several exercises for calculations. The following list reflects how the contents of the book are of interest to rheology users in many industrial branches. — Polymers: Solutions, melts, solids; film emulsions, cellulose solutions, latex emulsions, solid films, sheetings (un-laminar, mult-laminar), laminates; natural resins, epoxies, casting resins; silicones, caouichouc, gums, softand hard rubbers; thermoplastics, elastomers, thermosets, blends, foamed materials; uncrosslinked and cross-linked polymers containing or without fillers or fibers; poly- meric compounds and composites; solid bars of glass-fiber, carbon-fiber and synthetic fiber rein forced polymers (GFRP, CFRP, SFRP); polymerization, cross-linking, curing, vulcanization, melt: ing and hardening processes; powder rheology, resin powders, granulatesAdhesives and sealants: Glues, single and multi-component adhesives, pressure sensitive ad- hesives (PSA), UV curing adhesives, hotmelts, plastisol pastes (e.g. for automotive underseals and seam sealings}, construction adhesives, putties; uncured and cured adhesives; curing pro- cess; tack, stringiness Coatings, paints, lacquers: Spray, brush, dip coatings; solvent-borne, water-based coatings; metallic effect, textured, low solids, high solids, photo-resists, UV (ultra violet) radiation curing, powder coatings; glazes and stains for wood; coil coatings; reactive fire-protection coatings; solid coating films; powder rheology, powder coatings, colored powders (e.g. titanium dioxide, soot), e.g. for additive manufacturing (AM) Printing inks and varnishes: Gravure, letterpress, flexographic, planographic, offset, screen printing inks, UV (ultra violet) radiation curing inks; ink-jet printer inks; writing inks for pens; mill-base premix, color pastes, “thixo-pastes"; liquid and pasty pigment dispersions; printing process; misting; tack; powder rheology: materials for additive manufacturing (AM) Paper coatings: Primers and topcoats; immobilization process Foodstuffs: Water, vegetable oils, aroma solvents, fruit juices, baby food, liquid nutrition, li- queurs, syrups, purees, thickeners as stabilizing agents, gels, pudding, jellies, ketchup, mayon- naise, mustard, dairy products (such as yogurt, cream cheese, cheese spread, soft and hard cheese, curds, butter), emulsions, chocolate (melt), soft sweets, ice cream, chewing gum, dough, whisked egg, cappuccino foam, sausage meat, sauces containing meat chunks, jam containing fruit pieces, animal feed; bio-technological fluids; gel formation of hydrocolloids (e.g. of corn starch and gelatin); interfacial rheology (e.g. for emulsions, foams); rheology of powders and granulates: milk powder, cocoa powder, coffee powder, coffee whitener, flour, starch powder (e.g.as.a binder), powdered sugar, granulated sugar, spices, animal feed (as granulates, pellets), grain, com, rice, spray-dried products; influence of humidity (e.g. biscuits, cookies, crackers); food tribology (e.g. for creaminess); tack Cosmetics, beauty care products: Perfume oils, emulsions (e.g. skin care, hair-dye), lotions, nail polish, roll-on fluids (deodorants), shampoo, shower gels, skin creams, abrasive peeling creams, hair gels, styling waxes, shaving creams, tooth-gels, toothpastes, makeup dispersions, lipstick, mascara, medical adhesives (e.g. for diapers), super-absorbers; hairs, sponges; inter- facial rheology (e.g. for emulsions, foams); powder rheology: make-up powders, rouge, deo- dorant powders, dry shampoo, baby powders, hygienics powders Pharmaceuticals, medicaments, bio-tech products, health and personal care products: Cough mixtures, wetting agents, nose sprays, vaccines, blood (hemo-theology), blood-plasma substitutes, emulsions, saliva, mucus, hydrogels, skin creams, synovia fluid (e.g. for joints), hyaluronan acid (HA), ointments, vaseline, natural and synthetic membranes, silicone pads and cushions, dental molding materials, tooth filling, sponges, contact lenses, medical adhesives (e.g; for skin plasters, dental prothesis), denture fixative creams, hair, bone cement, implants, organic‘inorganic compounds (hybrids); “biologically active” suspensions and gels (e.g. micro- algae, bacteria); tribolgy: bacterial bio-films, biological cells, tissue engineered medical prod- ucts (TEMPS), cartilage, catheters; interfacial rheology (e.g. emulsions, foams); powder rheol- ogy: tablets, disinfection powders Agrochemicals: Plant or crop protection agents, solutions and dispersions of insecticides and pesticides, herbicides and fungicides Detergents, home care products: Household cleaning agents, liquid soap, disinfectants, sur- factant solutions, dispersions containing viscoelastic surfactants (VES), washing-up liquids, dish washing agents, laundry, fabric conditioners, washing powder concentrate, fat removers; interfacial rheology: emulsions, foams; powder rheology: superabsorbers (e.g. for diapers) Surface technology: Polishing and abrasive suspensions; cooling emulsions; powder rheology, tribology: polishing powders, abrasive suspensionsineering, electronics industry: Thick film pastes, conductive, resistance, insu- lating, glass paste, soft solder and screen-printing pastes; SMD adhesives (for surface mounted devices), insulating and protective coatings, de-greasing agents, battery fluids and pastes, coat- ings for electrodes — Petrochemicals: Crude oils, petroleum, solvents, de-icing agents, fuels, mineral oils, light and heavy oils, lubricating greases, paraffines, waxes, petrolatum, vaseline, natural and poly- mer-modified bitumen (PmB), asphalt binders, distillation residues; from coal and wood: tar and pitch; interfacial rheology (e.g. for emulsions); tribology: lubricating behavior — Ceramics and glass: Casting slips, kaolin and porcelain suspensions, glass powder and enam- el pastes, glazes, plastically deformable ceramic pastes, glass melis, aero-gels, xero-gels, sol/gel materials, composites, organo-silanes (hybrids), basalt melts; powder rheology: ceramic pow- ders (e.g, for additive manufacturing, AM), clay, loam — Construction materials: Self-levelling cast floors, plasters, mortar, cement suspensions, tile adhesives, dispersion paints, sealants, floor sheeting, natural and polymer-modified bitumen (Pm), and GTR (ground tire rubber) modified asphalt binder (for road pavement); bulk and powder rheology: sand, lime, chalk, gypsum — Metals: Melts of magnesium, aluminum, steel, alloys, slags; molding process in a semi-solid state ("thixo-forming’, “thixo-casting’, “thixo-forging”), compounds: ceramic fiber reinforced lightweight metals; powder rheology: metal powders (e.g. for additive manufacturing, AM) ~ Waste industry: Waste water, sewage sludges, animal excrement (e.g. of fishes, poultry, cats, dogs, pigs, cattle], residues from refuse incineration plants; powder rheology: sludges, filter cakes ~ Geology, soil mechanics, mining industry: Sludges from coal, peat, soil, drilling muds; river deformation (e.g. due to mining operations, earthwork, canal and drain constructions, operations of vehicles in agriculture); drilling fluids, fracturing fluids and lake sediment masses; (e.g. containing “flow improvers’); melts of volcanic stones (e.g. basalt), lava, magma, salt melts; powder rheology: coal powder, briquet manufacturing ~ Disaster control: Foam for fire extinguishers, deformation behavior of burning materials, soil deformation due to floods and earthquakes — Materials for special functions (e.g. as “smart fluids”): Magneto-rheological fluids (MRF), elec- trorheological fluids (ERF), di-electric (DE) materials, self-repairing coatings, materials showing selforganizing superstructures (e.g. surfactants), dilatant fabrics (shock-absorbing, “shot- proof"), mesogenic fluids (MF), liquid crystals (LC), ionic fluids, micro-capsule paraffin wax (e.g. as “phase-change material” PCM), shape-memory materials (SPM); tribology: haptic sensation (when prooving the shape of the whole sample) or tactile sensation (when touching or scanning the surface); systems reacting by a change in shape due to an external excitation (e.g. tempera- ture, light, pressure}; powder rheology: materials used for additive manufacturing (AM) Itis pleasing that the first four editions of The Rheology Handbook, published in 2002, 2006, 2011 and 2014 sold out so unexpectedly quickly, It was positive to hear that the books met with approv- al, not only from laboratory technicians and practically oriented engineers, but also from teachers and professors of schools and colleges of applied sciences. Even at universities, The Rheology Handbook is meanwhile taken as an introductory teaching material for explaining the basics of theology in lectures and practical courses, and as a consequence, many students worldwide are using it when writing their final paper or thesis. This textbook is also available in German language, and between 2000 and 2016 also here, five editions were published meanwhile (title: Das Rheo- fogie Handbuch), New in this fifth edition is Chapter 13 (shear tests with powders and bulk solids). Further present-day examples have been added resulting as well from contacts to industrial users as well as from corporation with several working groups, e. g. for developing modem standardizing meas- 6uring methods for diverse industrial branches. The references and standards have been updated (e.g. in Chapter 15). Thope that The Rheology Handbook will prove itself a useful source of information for charac- terizing the above mentioned products in an application-oriented way, assuring their quality and helping to improve them wherever possible. Stuttgart, June 2020 Thomas G. MezgerContents Contents £ Introduction .... sannnssonessonee sesenen Ll Rheology, rheometry and viscoelasticity. Le Deformation and flow behavior... 13 References... 2 Flow behavior and viscosity... 21 Introduction... 22 Definition of terms. 221 Shear stress 2.2.2 Shear rate. 2.2.3 Viscosity 23 Shear load-dependent flow behavior 231 Ideal-viscous flow behavior. 24 Types of flow illustrated by the TwoPlates model... 31 25 References. : “ 31 3 Rotational tests.. 31 Introduction. 32 Basic principles 32.1 Test modes-controlled shear rate (CSR) and controlled shear stress (CSS), raw data and rheological parameters 33 Flow curves and viscosity functions 3.3.1 Description of the tes 33.2 3.3.3. Shearthickening flow behavior... 3.3.4 Yield point.. 335 Overview: flow curves and 3.3.6 Fitting functions for flow and viscosity curves... 3.3.7. The effects of rheology additives in water-based dispersions... 34 Time-dependent flow behavior and viscosity function 3.4.1 Test description 32 © ‘Tiinedaponident low bokavtGk oT saniptas showing nethaldaning. 3.4.3 Time-dependent flow behavior of samples showing hardening. 35 ‘Temperature-dependent flow behavior and viscosity function 3.5.1 Test description 3.5.2 _Temperature-dependent low behavior of samples showing no hardening ...86 3.5.3 Temperature-dependent flow behavior of samples showing hardening... 35.4 Fitting functions for curves of the temperature-dependent viscosity 3.6 Pressure-dependent flow behavior and viscosity function . 37 References. 4 Elastic behavior and shear MOdUIUS s..ssmmnnssnnnsen 41 Introduction... 42 Definition of terms. 4.21 Deformation and stré 4.2.2 Shear modulus. 43 Shear load-dependent deformation behaviar 102Contents 43.1 44 45 5 51 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 53 54 6 61 62 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 63 631 6.3.2 63.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 64 65 7 7.2 7.21 7.2.2 7.23 7.24 73 731 73.2 733 734 73.5 74 8.1 8.2 821 8.2.2 823 10 Idealelastic deformation behavior: 2 102 Yield point determination using the shear stress/deformation diagram... 104 106 108 108 108 108 113 118 Introduction... Basic principles.. Viscoelastic liquids according to Maxwell. Viscoelastic solids according to Kelvin/Voigt Normal stresses References... 121 Creep tests si 122 Introduction: 122 Basic principles.. 122 Description of the test... 122 Ideal-elastic behavior. 124 Ideal-viscous behavior 124 Viscoelastic behavior. 124 Analysis... 125 Behavior of the molecules ...... 125 126 127 130 136 136 137 138 The Burgers model Curve discussion... Definition of terms Data conversion... Determination of the molar mass distribution Determination of the yield point via creep tests. 139 139 Basic principles. 139 Description of the test. 139 Ideal-elastic behavio 141 141 142 142 142 143 145 149 151 152 153 Ideal-viscous behavior Viscoelastic behavio Analysis. Behavior of the molecules Curve discussion... Definition of terms. Data conversion... : Determination of the molar mass distribution .. References... Oscillatory tests ane Introduction... 153 Basic principles... 154 Ideal-elastic behavior. ss a 154 Ideal-viscous behavior... 156 Viscoelastic behavior. = 157Contents 824 8.2.5 83 83.1 833 834 835 83.6 84 84.1 8.4.2 84.3 8.4.4 84.5 8.4.6 847 85 8.5.1 8.5.2 8.5.3 8.6 8.6.1 8.6.2 8.6.3 8.6.4 87 87.1 88 89 8.9.1 8.9.2 8.10 91 91d 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.14 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.3 Definition of terms.. The test modes controlled shear strain and controlled shear stress, raw data and rheological parameters Amplitude sweeps... Description of the tes : cs Limiting value of the LVE range. 2 7 169 Determination of the yield point and the flow point by amplitude sweeps. 174 Frequency-dependence of amplitude sweeps. 7 179 SAOS and LAOS tests, and Lissajous diagrams. “ 180 Frequency sweeps. 7 184 Desc n of the test. = 185 Behavior of uncrosslinked polymers (solutions and melts) . 187 Behavior of crosslinked polymers. eve 195 Behavior of dispersions and gels... Comparison of superstructures using frequency sweeps Multiwave test... Data conversion Time-dependent behavior at constant dynamic mechanical and isothermal conditions. Description of the test. \e-dependent behavior of samples showing no hardel Time-dependent behavior of samples showing hardening.. Temperature-dependent behavior at constant dynamic mechanical conditions... Description of the test. Temperature-dependent behavior of samples showing no hardening... Temperature-dependent behavior of samples showing hardening Thermoanalysis (TA) Time/temperature shift. Temperature shift factor according to the WLF method ; The Cox/Merz relation 2 Combined rotational and oscillatory tests... Presetting rotation and oscillation in series. Superposition of oscillation and rotati References. Complex behavior, surfactant systems .. Surfactant systems Surfactant structures and micelles. Emulsions. Mixtures of surfactants and polymers, polymers containing surfactant components Applications of surfactant systems... Rheological behavior of surfactant systems Typical shear behavio Sheavinduced effects; shearhunding andl "theo chaos References. lnContents 10 10.1 10.2 10.2.1 10.2.2 10.2.3 10.2.4 10.3 10.3.1 10.3.2 10.3.3 10.3.4 10.3.5 10.3.6 10.3.7 10.3.8 10.4 10.4.1 10.4.2 10.4.3 10.4.4 10.4.5 10.4.6 10.4.7 10.4.8 10.5 10.6 10.6.1 10.6.2 10.6.3 10.6.4 10.6.5 10.6.6 10.7 10.7.1 10.7.2 10.7.3 10.8 10.8.1 10.8.2 10.8.3 10.8.4 10.9 ww 1d 112 11.21 12 secon 27D 272 272 272 Measuring systems, Introduction. Concentric cylinder measuring systems (CC MS) Cylinder measuring systems in general... Narrow-gap concentric cylinder measuring systems according to ISO 3219....275 Double-gap measuring systems (DG MS) 282 High-shear cylinder measuring systems (HS MS) 2 282 Cone-and-plate measuring systems (CP MS) 7 283 Geometry. : - 283 Calculations. = “ 284 Conversion between raw data and rheological parameters 285 Flow instabilities and secondary flow effects in CP systems 285 Cone truncation and gap setting . 286 Maximum particle size. - 287 Filling of the cone-and-plate measuring system : 288 Advantages and disadvantages of cone-and-platemeasuring systems..u..288 Parallel-plate measuring systems (PP MS). .290 Geometry... 290 Calculations 291 Conversion between raw data and rheological parameters 293 Flow instabilities and secondary flow effects in a PP system 293 Recommendations for gap setting... 293 Automatic gap setting and automatic gap control using the normal force control option. Determination of the temperature gradient in the sample. 295 Advantages and disadvantages of parallel-plate measuring system: 295 Mooney/Ewart measuring systems (ME MS) .297 Relative measuring systems. 298 Measuring systems with sandblasted, profiled or serrated surfaces, 299 Spindles in the form of disks, pins, and spheres... 300 Krebs spindles 302 294 Paste spindles and rotors showing pins and vanes 303 Ball measuring systems (motion along a circular path) ... 304 Further relative measuring systems. Zs 305 Measuring systems for solid torsion bars. " 306 Bars showing a rectangular cross section : 307 Bars showing a circular cross section... 309 Composite materials 310 312 312 315 325 328 339 Special measuring devi : . Special measuring conditions which influence rheology. Rheo-optical measuring devices. Other special measuring devices un... Other kinds of testings besides shear tests. References......... 343 343 343 343 Instrument: jew: methods for testing viscosity and elas! Very simple determinations.Contents 11.2.2 1.2.3 124 1.2.5 11.2.6 127 11.2.8 11.29 11.2.10 12.11 1.2.12 11.213 112.14 11.215 11.2.16 11.2.17 11.2.18 113 11.3.1 11.3.2 114 141 11.4.2 11.5 11.6 1? 17.1 117.2 173 LL74 175 11.7.6 118 12 121 12.2 12.2.1 12.2.2 12.23 12.24 12.3 12.3.1 12.3.2 12.3.3 12.3.4 Flow on a horizontal plane... : Spreading or slump on a horizontal plane after lifting a container Flow on an inclined plane. Flow on a vertical plane or over a special tool Flow in a channel, trough or bowl 7 Flow cups and other pressureless capillary viscometers. - Devices showing rising, sinking, falling and rolling elements Penetrometers, consistometers and texture analyzers . Pressurized cylinder and capillary devices . Simple rotational viscometer tests 7 Devices with vibrating or oscillating elements Rotational and oscillatory curemeters (for rubber testing) .. Tension testers. Compression testers .. Linear shear testers. Bending or flexure testers... Torsion testers .. Flow cups... ISO cups. Other types of flow cups.. Capillary viscometers Glass capillary viscometers... Pressurized capillary viscometers.. Falling-ball viscometers.. Stabinger viscometer. Rotational and oscillatory rheometers.... Rheometer set-ups. Control loops Devices to measure torques. Devices to measure deflection angles and rotational speeds Bearings Temperature control systems.. References 413 Guideline for rheological tests snmnnene sevens 4B Selection of the measuring system (geometry) 418, Rotational tests 418, Flow and viscosity curves. 418, Time-dependent flow behavior (rotation), 419 Step tests (rotation): structural decomposition and regeneration (thixotropy) Temperature dependent flow behavior (rotation) Oscillatory tests... Amplitude sweep: Frequency sweeps Step tests (oscillation): structural decomposition and regeneration (thixotropy)Contents 12.3.5 12.4 12.4.1 12.4.2 12.4.3 12.5 13 13.1 13.1.1 13.1.2 13.2 13.2.1 13.2.2 13.2.3 13.2.4 13.2.5 13.2.6 13.3 13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3 13.3.4 13.4 14 14. 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 as 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 16 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 14 422 423 423 425 Temperature-dependent viscoelastic behavior oscillation)... Selection of the test type. Behavior at rest.. Flow behavior. Structural decomposition and regeneration (thixotropic behavior, e.g. of coatings) 425 Reference: 425 426 426 Shear tests with powders and bulk solids, Introduction. Classification of bulk solids according to their fluidizability 426 Influences on the flow behavior of powder 427 Shear test of highly compacted, consolidated bulk solids. 428 Pre-compaction of the bulk solid 429 Pre-shear of the bulk solid 430 Shearto-failure of the bulk sol 431 Further pre-shear and shear-to-failure cycles. 431 The Mohr’s les.. ee - “ - 432 Further tests «434 Shear test of slightly compacted bulk solids, using the powder cel 436 Powder cells. 436 Preparations for powder tes 437 438 440 443 Preliminary tests for fluidization behavior of powders... Powder testing and the determination of the cohesion strength. References... 444 444 448 456 464 468 471 Rheologists and the historical development of rheology Development until the 19" century. Development between 1800 and 190 Development between 1900 and 194: Development between 1950 and 197: Development since 1980. References... sivas icine ABD, 482 491 Appendix symbols, signs and abbreviations used The Greek alphabet... Conversion table for units. 492 References... 495 Standard: 496 ISO standards. 496 ASTM standard: DIN, DIN EN, DIN EN ISO and EN standard: Important standards for users of rotational rheometer. 499 505 509 References... 509 Author, _ 2 Sil Acknowledgements... 511 Index. . . 512Rheology, rheometry and viscoelasticity 1 Introduction 1.1. Rheology, rheometry and viscoelasticity a) Rheology Rheology is the science of deformation and flow. It is a branch of physics and physical chemistry since the most important variables come from the field of mechanics: forces, deflections and ve- locities. The term rheology originates from the Greek: rhei or rheo meaning to flow !], Thus, rheology is literally flow science. However, rheological experiments do not merely reveal informa- tion about flow behavior of liquids but also about deformation behavior of solids. The connection here is that a large deformation produced by shear forces causes many materials to flow. All kinds of shear behavior, which can be described rheologically in a scientific way, can be viewed as being in between two extremes: flow of ideal-viscous liquids on the one hand and deformation of ideal-elastic solids on the other. Illustrative examples coming close to these two extremes of ideal behaviors are a low-viscosity mineral oil and a rigid steel ball. Viscosity and flow behavior of fluids are explained in Chapter 2. Elasticity and deformation behavior of solids are described in Chapter 4. Behavior of all real materials is based on the combination of both a viscous and an elastic portion and therefore, it is called viscoelastic. Wallpaper paste is a viscoelastic liquid, for example, and a gum eraser is a viscoelastic solid. information on viscoelastic behavior can be found in Chapter 5. Complex and extraordinary rheological behavior is presented in Chapter 9 using the example of surfactant systems. Table 1.1 shows the most important terms, all of which will be covered in this book. This chart can also be found at the beginning of Chapters 2 to 8, with those terms given in bold print being discussed in the chapter in hand. Rheology was first seen as a science in its own, right not before the beginning of the 20% century. However, scientists and practical users have long before been interested in the behavior of liquids and solids, although some of their methods have not always been very scientific. A of important facts of the historical development in rheology is given in Chapter 14. Of special interest are here the various attempts to classify all kinds of different rheological behavior, such as the classification of Markus Reiner in 1931 and 1960, and of George W. Scott Blairin 1942; see also], The aim of the rheologists’ is to measure deformation and flow behavior of a great vari- ely of matters, to present the obtained results clearly and to explain it. b) Rheometry Rheometry is the measuring technology used to determine rheological data. The emphasis here is on measuring systems, instruments, and methods for testing and analysis. Both liquids and solids, but also powders, can be investigated using rotational and oscillatory rheometers. Rotational tests which are performed to characterize viscous behavior are presented in Chapter 3. In order to evaluate viscoelastic behavior, creep tests (Chapter 6), relaxation tests (Chapter 7) and oscil- latory tests (Chapter 8) are performed. Chapter 10 contains information on measuring systems “Thomas G. Mezger: The Rheology Handbook © Copyright 2020 by Vincentz Network, Hanover, Germany 15Introduction Table 1.1: Overview on different kinds of rheological behavior Liquids Solids {ideal) viscous viscoelastic viscoelastic (ideat) elastic flow behavior flow behavior deformation behavior deformation behavior viscosity law Maxwell model Kelvin/Voigt model__ elasticity law {according to Newton) (according to Hooke) flow/viscosity curves creep tests, relaxation tests, oscillatory tests (e.g. measuring geometries) and special measuring devices, and Chapter 11 gives an overview on diverse instruments used. Shear experiments on slightly compressed powders and on strong- ly compressed bulk materials are explained in Chapter 13. Analog programmers and on-line recorders for plotting flow curves have been on the market since around 1970. Around 1980, digitally controlled instruments appeared which made it possible to store measuring data and to use a variety of analysis methods, including also complex ones. De- velopments in measuring technology are constantly pushing back the limits. At the same time, thanks to standardized measuring systems (geometries) and procedures, measuring results can be compared world-wide today. Meanwhile, several rheometer manufacturers can offer test condi- tions to customers in many industrial branches which come very close to simulate even complex process conditions in practice. A short guideline for rheological measurements is presented in Chapter 12 in order to fa- cilitate the daily laboratory work for practical users. c) Appendix Chapter 15 (Appendix) shows all the used signs, symbols and abbreviations with their units. The Greek alphabet and a conversion table for units (SI and CGS system) can also be found there. More than 500 standards are listed in Chapter 16 (ISO, ASTM, EN and DIN). The refer ences, publications and books are specified at the end of the respective chapter. They can be identified by the number in brackets (e.g. "24l as reference 34 in Chapter 12). ) Information for “Mr. and Ms. Cleverly” ‘Throughout this textbook, the reader will find sections for “Mr. and Ms. Cleverly" which are marked with a symbol showing glasses: G6” These sections are written for those readers who wish to go deeper into the theoretical side and who are not afraid of a little extra mathematics and fundamentals in physics. However, these “Cleverly” explanations are not required to understand the information given in the normal text of later chapters, since this textbook is also written for beginners in the field of rheology. Therefore, for those readers who are above all interested in the practical side of rheology, the “Cleverly” sections can simply be ignored. 1.2. Deformation and flow behavior We are confronted with rheological phenomena every single day. Some experiments are listed below to demonstrate this point. The examples given will be discussed in detail in the chapters mentioned in brackets. Experiment 1: Behavior of mineral oil, plasticine, and steel Completely different types of behavior can be seen when the following three subjects hit the floor (see Figure 1.1): 16Deformation and flow behavior a) The mineral oil is flowing and spreading until it shows a very thin layer finally (ideal flow behavior: see Chapter 2.3.1) b) The plasticine will be deformed when it hits the floor, and afterwards, it remains deformed permanently (inhomogeneous plastic behavior outside the range: see Chapter 3.3.4.2c) c) The steel ball bounces back, and exhibits afterwards no deformation at all (ideal-elastic be- havior: see Chapter 4.3.1) ear viscoelastic deformation Experiment 2: Playing with “bouncing putty” (some call it “Silly Putty”) The silicone polymer (uncrosslinked PDMS) displays different rheological behaviors depending on the period of time under stress (viscoelastic behavior of polymers: see Chapter 8.4, frequency sweep]: a) When stressed briefly and quickly, the putty behaves like a rigid and elastic solid: If you mold a piece of it to the shape of a ball and throw it on the floor, it is bouncing back. b) When stressed slowly at a constantly low force over a longer period of time, the putty shows the behavior of a highly viscous, yielding and creeping liquid: If itis in the state of rest, thus, if you leave it untouched for a certain period of time, it is spreading very slowly under its own weight due to gravity to show an even layer with a homogeneous thickness finally. Experiment 3: Do the rods remain in the position standing up straight? ‘Three wooden rods are put into three glasses containing different materials and left for gravity to do its work. a) In the glass of water, the rod changes its position immediately and falls to the side of the glass (ideal-viscous flow behavior: see Chapter 2.3.1). ‘Additional observation: All the air bubbles which were brought into the water when immers- ing the rod are rising quickly within seconds. b) b) In the glass containing a silicone polymer (uncrosslinked PDMS), the rod moves very, very slowly, reaching the side of the glass after around 10 minutes (polymers showing zero- shear viscosity: see Chapters 3.3.2.1a). ‘Additional observation concerning the air bubbles which were brought into the polymer sam- ple by the rod: Large bubbles are rising within a few minutes, but the smaller ones seem to remain suspended without visible motion. However, after several hours even the smallest bubble has reached the surface. Therefore, indeed long-term but complete de-aeration of the silicone occurs finally. ¢) In the glass containing a hand cream, the rod still remains standing straight in the initial posi- tion even after some hours (yield point and flow point: see Chapters 3.3.4, 4.4 and 8.3.4). ‘Additional observation concerning the air bubbles: All bubbles, independent of their size, re- main suspended, and therefore here, no de-aeration takes place at all Summary Rheological behavior depends on many extemal influences, Above all, the fol lowing test conditions are important: ~ Type of loading (preset of defor- mation, velocity or force; or shear strain, shear rate or shear stress, respectively) — Degree of loading (low-shear or Figure 1.1: Deformation behavior after hitting the floor: high-shear conditions) 4) mineral oil, b) plasticine, c) steel ball 7Introduction — Duration of loading (the periods of time under load and at rest) — Temperature (see Chapters 3.5 and 8.6) Further important parameters are, for example: — Concentration (e.g. of solid particles in a suspension: see Chapter 3.3.3; of polymer mole- cules in a solution: see Chapter 3.3.2.1a; of surfactants in a dispersion: see Chapter 9). Using an immobilization cell, the amount of liquid can be reduced under controlled conditions (e.g. when testing dispersions such as paper coatings: see Chapter 10.8.1.3). — Ambient pressure (see Chapter 3.6) — pH value (e.g. with surfactant systems: see Chapter 9) — Strength of a magnetic or an electric field when investigating magneto-rheological fluids or electro-rheological fluids (MRF, ERF), respectively (see Chapters 10.8.1.1 and 2). — UV radiation curing (e.g. of resins, adhesives and inks: see Chapter 10.8.1.) — Air humidity (see Chapter 10.8.1.5) — Amount of air, flowing through a fluidized mixture of powder and air (see Chapter 13.3) — Degree of solidification in a powder or compressed bulk material (e.g. granulate; see Chapter 13.2) 1.3. References [1.1] Beris, A.W, Giacomin, A, Panta rhei — [1.2] Mekinley, G, A hitchhikers guide to complex everthing flows, . Appl. Rheol. 24 (2014) fluids, Rheol. Bull, 84(1), (2015) 52918 18Definition of terms 2 Flow behavior and viscosity In this chapter are explained the following terms given in bold: Liquids Solids (ideal) viscous viscoelastic viscoelastic (ideal) elastic flow behavior flow behavior deformation behavior deformation behavior viscosity law Maxwell model Kelvin/Voigt model elasticity law (according to Newton) (according to Hooke) flow/viscosity curves creep tests, relaxation tests, oscillatory tests 2.1 Introduction Before 1980 in industrial practice, rheological experiments on pure liquids and dispersions were carried out almost exclusively in the form of rotational tests which enabled the characterization of flow behavior at medium and high flow velocities. Meanwhile since measurement technology has developed, many users have expanded their investigations on deformation and flow behavior performing measurements which cover also the low-shear range. 2.2 Definition of terms The Two-Plates model is used to de- fine fundamental rheological param- eters (see Figure 2.1). The upper plate with the (shear) area A is set in motion by the (shear) force Fand the resulting velocity v is measured. The lower plate is fixed (v = 0). Between the plates there is the distance h, and the sample is sheared in this shear gap. It is assumed that the following v shear conditions are occurring: 1. The sample shows adhesion to Figure 2.1: The Two-Plates model for shear tests to illustrate both plates without any wall lip ihe velit distribution ofa flowing fluid in the shear gap effects. 2. There are laminar flow condi- tions, i.e. flow can be imagined in the form of layers. Therefore, my there is no turbulent flow, i-e. no 7 vortices are appearing. Accurate calculation of the rheologi- ot be cal parameters is only possible if wv both conditions are met. Figure 2.2: Laminar flow in the form of planar fluid layers “Thomas G. Mezger: The Rheology Handbook © Copyright 2020 by Vincentz Network, Hanover, Germany 19Flow behavior and viscosity Experiment 1: The stack of beer mats Each one of the individual beer mats represents an individual flowing layer. The beer mats are showing a laminar shape, and therefore, they are able to move in the form of layers along one another (see Figure 2.2). Of course, this process takes place without vortices, thus without showing any turbulent behavior. The real geometric conditions in rheometer measuring systems (or measuring geometries) are not as simple as in the Two-Plates model. However, if a shear gap is narrow enough, the necessary requirements are largely met and the definitions of the following rheological parameters can be used. 2.2.1 Shear stress Definition of the shear stress: Equation 2.1 THF/A ‘t (pronounced: tou); with the shear force F [N] and the shear area (or shearing surface area) A [m?], see Figure 2.1. The following holds: 1 N= 1 kg» m/s? The unit of the shear stress is [Pa], (pascal). Blaise Pascal (1623 to 1662/71) was a mathematician, physic For conversions: 1 Pa= 1 N/m? = 1 kg/m: s? A previously used unit was [dyne/cm’]; with: 1 dyne/cm? = 0.1 Pa Note: [Pa] is also the unit of pressure 100 Pa = 1 hPa (= 1 mbar); or 100,000 Pa = 10° Pa=0.1 MPa {= 1 bar) Example: In a weather forecast, the air pressure is given as 1070 hPa (hecto-pascal; ~ 107 kPa). , and philosopher. Some authors take the symbol o for the shear stress (pronounced: sigma) 221. However, this symbol is usually used for the tensile stress (see Chapters 4.2.2, 10.8.4.1 and 11.2.14). To avoid confusion and in agreement with the majority of current specialized literature and standards, here, the symbol + will be used to represent the shear stress (see e.g. ISO 3219-1, ASTM D4092 and DIN 1342-1). 2.2.2 Shear rate Definition of the shear rate: Equation 2.2 yevn ¥ (pronounced: gamma-dot); with the velocity v [m/s] and the distance h [m] between the plates, see Figure 2.1. The unit of the shear rate is [1/s] or [s"], called “reciprocal seconds”. Sometimes, the following terms are used as synonyms: strain rate, rate of deformation, shear gradient, velocity gradient. Previously, the symbol D was often taken instead of y. Nowadays, almost all current standards are recommending the use of (see e.g. ISO 3219-1, ASTM 04092). Table 2.1 presents typical shear rate values occurring in industrial practice. 20Definition of terms Table 2.1: Typical shear rates of technical processes Process physical aging, longterm creep within days and up to several years cold flow sedimentation of particles surface leveling of coatings sagging of coatings, dripping, flow under gravity selFleveling at low-shear conditions in the range of the zero-shear viscosity mouth sensation dip coating applicator roller, at the coating head thermoforming mixing, kneading chewing, swallowing spreading extrusion pipe flow, capillary flow ing ng, si injection molding coating, painting, brushing, rolling, blade coating (manually) spraying impactlike loading milling pigments in fluid bases rubbing spinning process blade coating (by machine), high-speed coating lubrication of engine parts Shear rates 15") 10%... 10 19%... 0.01 £0,001... 0.01 0.01 ...0.1 0.01.1 20.1 1.10 1.100 1.. 100 1... 100 1.100 10... 100 10... 1000 10... 1000 10. 10* 10. 10* 100... 10# 100... 10¢ 1000... 10* 1000... 10® 1000 ... 10 1000... 108 1000 ... 108 1000 ... 10” 1000... 107 Practical examples solid polymers, asphalt rubber mixtures, elastomers emulsion paints, ceramic suspensions, fruit juices coatings, paints, printing inks emulsion paints, plasters, chocolate melt (couverture) silicones (PDMS) food dip coatings, candy masses paper coatings polymers rubbers, elastomers jelly babies, yogurt, cheese butter, spreadcheese polymer melts, dough, ceramic pastes, tooth paste crude oils, paints, juices, blood emulsions, plastisols, polymer blends polymer melts, ceramic suspensions brush coatings, emulsion paints, wall paper paste, plasters spray coatings, fuels, nose spray aerosols, adhesives solid polymers pigment pastes for paints and printing inks skin creams, lotions, oint- ments polymer melts, polymer fibers paper coatings, adhesive dispersions mineral oils, lubricating greases 21Flow behavior and viscosity For “Mr. and Ms. Cleverly” a) Definition of the shear rate using differential variables Equation 2.3 y= dv/dh flowing layers, and the “infinitely” (differentially) small thickness dh of a single flowing layer (see Figure 2.2). There is a linear velocity distribution between the plates, since the velocity v decreases lin early in the shear gap. Thus, for laminar and ideal-viscous flow, the velacity difference between all neighboring layers are showing the same value: dv = const, All the layers are assumed to have the same thickness: dh = const. Therefore, the shear rate is showing a constant value everywhere between the plates of the Two-Plates model since = dv/dh = const/const = const (see Figure 2.3). Both and v provide information about the velocity of a flowing fluid. The advantage of selecting the shear rate is that it shows a constant value throughout the whole shear gap. Therefore, the shear rate is independent of the position of any flowing layer in the shear gap. OF course, this applies only if the shear conditions are met as mentioned in the beginning of Chapter 2.2. How- ever, this does not apply to the velocity v which decreases from the maximum valUe Ym, on the upper, movable plate to the minimum value Vm = 0 on the lower, immovable plate. Therefore, when testing pure liquids, sometimes as a synonym for shear rate the term velocity gradient is used (e.g. in ASTM D4092). b) Calculation of shear rates occurring in technical processes The shear rate values which are given below are calculated using the mentioned formulas and should only be seen as rough estimations. The main aim of these calculations is to get merely an idea of the dimension of the relevant shear rate range. 1) Coating processes: painting, brushing, rolling or blade-coating ¥ =v/h, with the coating velocity v [m/s] and the wet layer thickness h [m] Examples 1a) Painting with a brush: With v = 0.1 m/s and h = 100 um = 000 s? 1.1 mm = 10% m; result: 1b) Buttering bread: , With v=0.1 m/s and h = Lmm = 107 m; result: ; y= 100s? vt) th) 1c) Applying emulsion paint with a roller 7 - With v= 0.2 m/s (or 5's perm), and h= 100 ym 2000 s ~ ‘a } = 0.1 mm = 107 m; result: y= 1d) Blade-coating of adhesive dispersions (e.g. for pressure-sensitive adhesives PSA): Figure 2.3: Velocity distribution and shear rate in the shear gap of the TwoPlates model 22Definition of terms Table 2.2: Shear rates of various kinds of blade-coating processes for adhesive emulsions Application Coating Coating Layer Approx. Coating rate velocity velocity thickness shear rat process AR[g/m’] vv [m/min] v [m/s] h [ym] range [s"] metering 2050 up to 250 up to 4.2 21050 80,000 to blade 2 mio. roller 15 to 100 up to 100 up to L7 15 to 100 10,000 to blade 100,000 liptype 20 to 100 20 to 50, 0.3310083 20 to 100 3000 to blade 50,000 present 2to 100 700 2 2to 100 120,000 to maximum 6 mio. future up to 1500 up to 25 250,000 to plans 12.5 mio. With the application rate AR (i.e. mass per coating area) m/A [g/m?]; for the coating volume V [m?] applies, with the mass m [kg] and the density [1 g/cm? = 1000 kg/m3]: V = m/p Calculation: h = V/A = (m/p)/A = (m/Al/p = AR/p; with AR = 1 g/m? = 103 kg/m? holds: h=10® m=1 um; and then: ¥ = v/h. See Table 2.2 for shear rates occurring in various kinds of blade-coating processes |? 25] 2) Flow in pipelines, tubes and capillaries Assumptions: horizontal pipe, steady-state and laminar flow conditions (for information on lami- nar and turbulent flow see Chapter 3.3.3), ideal-viscous flow, incompressible liquid. According to the Hagen/Poiseuille relation, the following holds for the maximum shear stress ty and the maximum shear rate { in a pipeline (index w for “at the wall”) Equation 2.4 (R + Ap) / (2+ L) Equation 2.5 Yw= (4 VY) /(m- RS) With the pipe radius R [m]; the pressure difference Ap [Pa] between inlet and outlet of the pipe or along the length L [m] of the measuring section, respectively (Ap must be compensated by the pump pressure); and the volume flow rate V [m3/s]. This relation was named in honor to Gotthilf HL. Hagen (1797 to 1848) (24 and Jean L.M. Poiseuille (1799 ta 1869) !27 Examples 2a) Pipeline transport of automotive coatings”*: 7-9] For a closed circular pipeline with the diameter DN 26 (approx. R = 13 mm = 1.3 - 10? m), and the volume flow rate V = 1.5 to 12 Lfmin= 2.51 - 105 to 2.00 - 10+ ms; results: ¥ y= 14.6 to 116s? = approx. 15 to 120 s*. For a pipeline branch with DN 8 (approx. R = 4mm =4 - 103 m), and V = 0.03 to 1 L/min = 5.06 - 107 to 1.67 - 10° m?s; results: ¥, = 10.1 to 332 s? = approx. 10 to 350s 2b) Drinking water supply, transport in pipelines!?!4 For a pipeline with the diameter DN 1300 (approx. R = 650 mm = 0.65 m), and a volume flow rate of max. V = 3300 L/s = 3.30 m/s; and for a second pipeline with DN 1600 (approx. 23Flow behavior and viscosity R = 800 mm =0.80 m) with max. V = 4700 L/s= 4.70 m?/s; results: max. y= 15.3 and 11.75 respectively. 2c) Filling bottles using a filling machine (e.g. drinks in food industry): Filling volume per bottle: V = 1 L = 0.001 m’; filling time per bottle: t= 5 s, then: 10+ m¥/s; diameter of the circular geometry of the injection nozzle: d = 21 ww = 2037 s = approx. 2000 s? = 10mm; 2d) Squeezing an ointment out of a tube (e.g. pharmaceuticals): Pressed out volume: V = lcm? = 10m; time to squeeze out: t= 1 5; then: diameter of the tube nozzle: d= 2R = 6 mm; result: y= 47.2 51 = approx. 50s? Vit = 10 m/s; 2e) Filling ointment into tubes using a filling machine (c.g. medicine): ing volume per tube: V = 100 ml = 10* m?; filling time per tube (at 80 work-cycles per minute, where 50 % is filling time): t = (60 s/2)/80 = 0.375 s; then: V = V/t = 2.67 - 10% m/s, using an injection nozzle with an annular geometry and a cross-sectional area of A = 24 - 10% m?, which for a rough estimation, corresponds to a circular area showing R = 2.76 - 10m (since A= - R?); result: j= 16,200 s* 2f) Transport process of a stucco gypsum suspension during production of archi- tectural plates 214] Size of the plates to be produced, made of stucco gypsum: Thickness h = 1.2 cm = 0.012 m und width b = 1.20 m; production speed v = L/t = 60 m/min = 1 m/s, with the length L of the plates; thus: necessary volume flow rate Vy = V/t = (h- b - L)/t = 0.0144 m?/s; for a mixer with three outlet pipes, each of them with a diameter of d = 2R = 75 mm; thus, for each single pipe counts: V= (14.4 - 103 ms) / 3 = 4.80 - 10% m/s, resulting in: jw = 116s? 3) Sedimentation of particles in suspensions Assumptions: fluid in a state-atrest; the particles are almost suspended and therefore they are sinking very, very slowly in a steady-state process (laminar flow, at a Reynolds number Re < 1; more about Re numbers: see Chapter 10.2.2.4b); spherical particles; the values of the weight force Fe [N] and the flow resistance force Fg [N] of a particle are approximately equal in size. According to Stokes’ law (Georges ©. Stokes, 1819 to 1903 !?)); Equation 2.6 Fo- Am - g=Fy=3-m-dp-n-v with the mass difference Am [kg] between a particle and the surrounding fluid, the gravitation constant g = 9.81 mjs?, the mean particle diameter d,,[m], the shear viscosity of the dispersion fluid n [Pas], and the particles’ settling velocity v [m/s]. The following applies: Am = V, - Ap, with the volume V, [m?] of a particle, and the density difference Ap [kg/m*] = (ep - pa) between the particles and the dispersion fluid; particle density pp [kg/m?] and fluid density eq [kg/m]. The following applies for spheres: V, in - d,°) / 6; and therefore, for the settling velocity Equation 2.7 24Definition of terms Assumption for the shear rate: y= v/h with the thickness h of the boundary layer on a particle surface, which is sheared when in motion against the surrounding liquid (the shear rate occurs on both sides of the particle). This equation is valid only if there are neither interactions between the particles, nor between the particles and the surrounding dispersion fluid. Assuming simply, that h = 0.1 - d, then: y= (10 - v/d Examples 3a) Sedimentation of sand particles in water With d, = 10 um = 105 m, n= ImPas = 103 Pas, and p,, = 2.5 g/cm? = 2500 kg/m? (a. g. quartz silica sand), and pq = 1 g/cm? = 1000 kg/m? (pure water); results: v = approx. 8.2 - 105 m/s Such a particle is sinking a maximum path of approx. 30 cm in 1 h (or approx. 7 m per day) With h = 1 um results: i-= v/h = approx. 80s? 3b) Sedimentation of sand particles in water containing a thickener With d, = 1 um = 10% m, and n = 100 mPas (e.g. water containing a thickener, measured at ¥ =0.01 $1), and with the same values for p, and pa as above in Example (3a), results: v = approx. 8.2 - 10? ms (or v= 0.7 mm per day). With h = 0.1 um resul 0.08 s* approximately. Note 1: Calculation of a too high settling velocity if interactions are ignored Stokes’ sedimentation formula only considers a single particle sinking, undisturbed on a straight path. Therefore, relatively high shear rate values are calculated, These values do not mirror the real behavior of most dispersions, since usually interactions are occurring. The layer thickness his hardly determinable. We know from colloid science: It depends on the strength of the ion- ic charge on the particle surface, and on the ionic concentration of the dispersion fluid (interac- tion potential, zeta-potential) 871, Due to ionic adsorption, a diffuse double layer of ions can be found on the particle surface. For this reason, in reality the result is usually a considera- bly lower setiling velocity. Therefore, and since the shear rate within the sheared layer is not constant: [tis difficult to estimate the corresponding shear rate values occurring with sedimen- tation processes, Note 2: Particle size of colloid dispersions, and nano-particles In literature, as medium diameters of colloid particles are mentioned different specifications: between 10° m and 10% m (or 1 nm to 1 um) ?*:?25), or between 10% m and 107 m (or lnm to 100 nm) 3), or between 10% m and 10° m (or 10 nm to 1 pm) |?4), in ISO 80004-1 of 2015 is stated: Nano-scaled particles are in the range of approximately 1 nm to 100 nm 7l, Due to Brownian motion, the nano-particles usually are remaining in a suspended state and do not tend to sedimentation. Above all, the limiting value of the settling particle size depends an the density difference of particles and dispersing fluid. G_ Endof the Cleverly section 2.2.3. Viscosity For all flowing fluids, the molecules are showing relative motion between one another, and this process is always combined with internal frictional forces. Therefore, for all fluids in motion, a certain flow resistance occurs which may be determined in terms of the viscosity. All materials which clearly show flow behavior are referred to as fluids (thus: liquids and gases) 25Flow behavior and viscosity a) Shear viscosity For ideal-viscous fluids measured at a constant temperature, the value of the ratio of shear stress and corresponding shear rate ¥ is a material constant, Definition of the shear viscosity, in most cases just called “viscosity*: Equation 2.8 Q ly 1 (eta, pronounced: gtah or atah), the unit of the shear viscosity is [Pas], (pascal-seconds). The following holds: 1Pas = IN - s/m?= 1 ke/s - m For low-viscosity liquids, the following unit is usually used: 1 mpas (milli-pascal-seconds) = 103 Pas Sometimes, for highly viscous samples the following units are used: 1 kPas (kilo-pascal-seconds) = 1000 Pas = 10? Pas, or even 1 MPas (mega-pascal-seconds) = 1000 kPas = 1,000,000 Pas = 10 Pas A previously used unit was [P], (‘poise”; at best pronounced in French); and: 1 P= 100 cP; however, this is not an S/ unit 2"), This unit was named in honor to the doctor and physicist /ean L. M. Poiseuille (1799 to 1869) 27), The following holds: 1 cP (centi-poise) = 1 mPas, and 1 P = 0.1 Pas = 100 mPas Sometimes, the term dynamic viscosity is used for n (asin DIN 1342-1). However, some people use the same term to describe either the complex viscosity determined by oscillatory tests, or to mean just the real part of the complex viscosity (the two terms are explained in Chapter 8.2.4b). To avoid confusion and in agreement with the majority of current international authors, here, the terms viscosity or shear viscosity will be used for 1, Table 2.3 lists viscosity values of various materials. The inverse value of viscosity is referred to as fluidity (phi, pronounced: fee or fi) 2171, However today, this parameter is rarely used. The following holds: Equation 2.9 © = 1/n with the unit [1/Pas| = [Pas] @ For “Mr. and Ms. Cleverly” Note 1: Usually, samples with high viscosity values are viscoelastic Many rheological investigations showed that at values of > 10 kPas, the elastic portion should no longer be ignored. These kinds of samples should no longer be considered simply viscous only, but visco-elastic (see also Chapter 5). Note 2: Shear viscosity n and extensional viscosity ne For ideal-viscous fluids under uniaxial tension the following applies for the values of the exten sional viscosity (in Pas) and shear viscosity n (also in Pas): ne(z) = 3 - (yj, if the values of the (see also Chapter 10.8.4.1 extensional strain rate ¢ [s¥] and shear rate y [s%] are equal in ‘Trouton relation). Sy" End of the Cleverly section b) Kinematic viscosity Definition of the kinematic viscosity Equation 2.10 ven/e (ny, pronounced: nu or new), with the density e [kg/m’], (rho, pronounced: ro). 26Definition of terms Table 2.3: Viscosity values, at T= +20 %C when without further specification; own data and from!=2. Material gases/air pentane/acetone/gasoline, petrol (octane)/ethanol water at 0 /+10/+20/+30 /+40/+50/ +60 /+70/ +80 /+90/+100 °C mercury blood plasma at +20 / +37 °C wine, fruit juices (undiluted) milk, coffee cream blood (from a healthy body) at +20 / +37 °C light glycol sulphuric acid sugar solutions (60 %) motor oils SAE 10W-30, at +23 / +50/ +100 °C olive oils gear oils glycerine honey, concentrated syrups polymer melts (at processing conditions, e.g. between T= +150 and +300 °C, and at y= 10 to 1000s") polymer melts: zero-shear viscosity at 7 < 0.1 s* and at T = +150 to +300 °C silicone (PDMS, uncrosslinked, zero-shear viscosity) hotmelts (maximum processing viscosity for melt extruders) bitumen (example): at T = +80 / +60 / +40 /+20°C and at T= 0 °C For the unit of density holds: 1 g/cm = 1000 kg/m3 The unit of kinematic viscosity is [mm?/s]; and: 1 mm?/s A previously used unit was [St] (stokes); with: 1 st 25.248) cosity 1 [mPas] 0.01 to 0.02 / 0.018 0.230 / 0.316 /0.538 / 1.20 1,79 / 1.31 / 1.00 / 0.798 / 0.653 / 0.547 / 0.467 / 0.404 /0.354 / 0.315 / 0.282 155 17/12 205 21010 5 to 120/4 to 15 (at y= 0.01 to 1000 s") 10 20 25 57 50 to 1000 175 /52/20 approx. 100 300 to 800 1480 approx. 10 Pas 10 to 10,000 Pas 1 kPas to 1 MPas 10 to 100 kPas 100 kPas 200 Pas / 1 kPas / 20 kPas / 0.5 MPas and 1 MPas, i.e, then almost like a viscoelastic solid 10 mys 100 cSt. This ui was named in honor to the mathematician and physicist George G. Stokes (1819 to 1903) 121, The following holds: 1 cSt (centistokes) = 1 mm/s. Example Conversion of the values of kinematic viscosity and shear viscosity Preset: A liquid shows v = 60 mm?/s = 60 Calculation: n =v Usually, kinemati 10° m/s, and p = 1.1 g/cm? 60 - 10. 1100 (m/s) - (kg/m3) = 66 ‘osity values are measured by use of flow cups, capillary viscometers, falling, 1100 kg/m? 103 kgj(s - m) = 66 mPas ball viscometers or Stabinger viscometers (see Chapters 11.3 to 11.6). 27Flow behavior and viscosity 2.3. Shear load-dependent flow behavior Experiment 2: The double-tube test, or the contest of the two fluids (see Figure 2.4) In the beginning, fluid F1 is flowing faster than fluid F2. with decreasing fluid level, F1 shows reduced flow velocity. F2, however, continues to flow with a hardly visible change in velocity. Therefore finally, F2 empties its tube before F1 does. Fl, a wallpaper paste, is an aqueous methyl- cellulose solution, and F2 is a mineral oil. Flow behavior of polymer solutions such as the wall paper paste is explained in Chapter 3.3.2.1: shear-thinning flow behavior. 2.3.1 Ideal-viscous flow behavior a) Viscosity law Formally, ideal-viscous flow behavior is described by the viscosity law: Equation 2.11 t=n-¥ Isaac Newton (1643 to 1727) wrote in 1687 in his textbook Principia 24®) in a quite inaccurate form about the flow resistance of liquids (‘defectus lubricitatus’; see also Chapter 14.1: 1687) Therefore, and especially in English spoken countries, ideal-viscous flow behavior often is also called Newtonian flow behavior. In rheology, both terms have the same meaning. Based on later research on fluid dynamics by D. Bernoulli (in 1738, Hydrodynamical®"l), . Euler (in 1739/1773, Scientia Navalis, and Construction des vaisseaux 229), joh, Bernoulli (in 1740, Hydraulica!22"), and C.L.M.H. Navier (in 182377), finally G.G. Stokes (in 1845 '?71) stated the modern form of what was called later Newton's viscosity law. Therefore sometimes, the viscosity law is also termed the “Newton/Stokes law” 224), Examples of ideal-viscous materials Low-molecular liquids (and this means here: with a molar mass below 10,000 g/mol) such as water, solvents, mineral oils (without polymer additives), silicone oils, viscosity standard fluids (oF course!), blood plasma; but also pure and clean bitumen (without associative super- structures, and at a sufficiently high temper- ature) Flow behavior is illustrated graphically by flow curves (previously sometimes also called rheograms) and viscosity curves. Flow curves are showing the interdependence of shear stress x and shear rate . Usually, y is presented on the x-axis (abscissa), and x on the y-axis (ordinate). However, + might also be displayed on the x-axis and ¥ on the y-axis, but this is meanwhile rarely used in industri- al laboratories Viscosity curves are derived from flow curves. Usually, n is presented on the y-axis Figure 2.4: Double-tube test and on the x-axis. Alternatively, the func- 28Shear load-dependent flow behavior tion n(x} can be shown with n on the y-axis and ‘ron the xaxis, however, this is less frequently carried out in industrial labs. Generally, the slope value of each point (x; y) of a curve can be calculated as: y/x. This counts for each point of a flow curve with the pair of values (¥; 1). The result of this calculation again corresponds to the viscosity value, this is because: n = 1/¥. Therefore, the n( y}-curve can be calculated point by point from the x()-curve Correspondingly, a steeper slope of the flow curve results in a higher level of the viscosity curve (see Figures 2.5 and 2.6). Usually today, this calculation is performed by a software pro- gram. The values of the shear viscosity of ideal- viscous fluids or Newtonian fluids are inde- pendent of the degree and duration of the shear load applied. Viscosity values of ideal-viscous liquids are often measured using flow cups, capillary vis- cometers, falling-ball viscometers or Stabinger viscometers (see Chapters 11.3 to 11.6). How- ever, when using these simple devices, the re- sults do not accurately mirror the more com- plex behavior of non-Newtonian liquids (see for example Chapter 11.3.1.2c: change of shear rates in capillaries). @ For “Mr. and Ms. Cleverly” b) The dashpot model The dashpot model is used to illustrate the be- havior of ideal-viscous fluids or Newtonian liq- uids, respectively (see Figure 2.7). Mechanical- ly similar examples are gas or liquid shock ab- sorbers (see Figure 2.8) Ideal-viscous flow behavior, explained by the behavior of a dashpot 1) When under load Under a constant force, the piston is moving continuously as long as the force is applied, pressing the dashpot fluid (e.g. an oil) through the narrow annular gap between the piston and the cylinder wall of the dashpot. When apply- ing forces of differing strength to the dashpot, it can be observed in all cases: The resulting Y Figure 2.5: Flow curves of two ideab-viscous fluids a Figure 2.6: Viscosity curves of two ideal-viscous fluids Figure 2.7: The dashpot model to illustrate ideal- viscous behavior Figure 2.8: A shock absorber which can be loaded from both sides!?*4! 29Flow behavior and viscosity velocity of the piston is proportional the driving force. The proportionality factor corresponds to the intemal friction of the fluid within the dashpot, and therefore, to the fluid’s flow resistance or viscosity, respectively. 2) When removing the load As soon as the force is removed, the piston immediately stops to move and rem: reached. sin the position Summary: Behavior of the dashpot model Under @ constant load, the dashpot fluid is flowing at a constant velocity or deformation rate. ‘After removing the load, the deformation applied to the fluid remains to the full extent. In other words: After a load-and-removal cycle, an ideal-viscous fluid completely remains in the deformed state. This kind of fluids shows absolutely no sign of elasticity. Comparison: Dashpot fluid and viscosity law For a dashpot the force/velocity law or flow resistance law holds according to Newton: F=Cy-V(E Cy 8) with the force F (NJ, the dashpot constant Cy [Ns/m = kg/s}, the index N is due to Newton; the piston velocity v [m/s], and the time derivative of the piston’s deflection path & [m/s] Here: F corresponds to the shear stress x, Cy corresponds to the viscosity n, v or & correspond to the shear rate ¥, and s corresponds to the deformation y. Note: Viscous behavior, viscous shear-heating, and lost deformation energy ring between the molecules, causing frictional heating, also called viscous heating. For fluids showing ideal- viscous flow behavior, the applied deformation energy is completely £ : used up and can be imagined as defor- mation work. A part of this thermal energy may heat up the fluid itself and another part may be released as heat to the surrounding environment. Dur- 6 ing a flow process, the applied defor- mation energy is used up completely by the fluid, and therefore, it is no = longer available for the fluid after {7 wards, i.e., it is lost. Scientists explain this process as energy dissipation: Here, all the applied deformation ener- — —————) Deformation energy acting on a fluid é leads to relative motion between the 4 7 [2 molecules. As a consequence, in flow- = = ing fluids frictional forces are occur- > >———— a 2 3 er Figure 2.9: Different appearances of laminar flow in a shear gap, illustrated by use of the Two Plates model 30 gy is lost (dissipated), asit is complete ly transformed into heat energy.References When the load is removed, the state of deformation which was reached finally by the fluid is re- maining to the full extent. Not even a partial elastic re-formation effect can be abserved. Therefore here, an irreversible process has taken place since the shape of the sample remains permanently changed finally, after the load is released from the fluid. If fluids are showing ideal-viscous flow behavior, there are absolutely no or at least no signif- icant interactions between their mostly small molecules or particles. Examples are pure solvents, oils and water; and there might be also some diluted polymer solutions and dispersions, however, only if they show a really very low concentration. Since this kind of fluids does not show any visco-elastic geblike structure, they may tend to separation, and therefore, effects like sedimenta- tion or flotation may occur in mixtures of fluids and in dispersions. GS” Endof the Cleverly section 2.4 Types of flow illustrated by the Two-Plates model Figure 2.9 illustrates seven different types of laminar flow which may occur in a shear gap: (1) state-atrest; (2) homogeneous laminar flow, showing a constant shear rate (see also Chapter 2.2); (3) wall-slip, the sample displays very pronounced cohesion while slipping along the walls without adhesion; (4) “plastic behavior”, only a part of the sample is sheared homogeneously (see also Chapter 3.3.4.2c}; (5) transient behavior, showing a startup effect as time-dependent transition until a steady-state viscosity value is reached (occurring above all at low shear rates; see also Chapter 3.3.1b]; (6) shear-banding, exhibiting here pronounced cohesion of the medium band (see also Chapter 9.2.2); (7) shear-banding, showing here three different flow velocities or viscosities, respectively (see also here Chapter 9.2.2) 2.5 References [2.1] Pascal, B, Récit de la grande éxperience de Pogg. Ann. Physik, 1839; Handbuch der Véquilibre des liqueurs, 1649; Traités de Wasserbaukunst, 1841/1861 Féquilibre des liqueurs et de la pesenteur de [2.7] _Poiseuille, LM, Recherches expérimentales la masse de lair, Paris, 1663 sur le mouvement des liquides dans les [2.2] Barnes, H.A, Hutton, J, Walters, K,, An in- tubes de trés petits diameétres, Acad. Sci, troduction to rheology, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Paris, 1840; Experimentelle Untersuchungen 1989; Barnes, H.A. A handbook of elemen- liber die Bewegung der Flissigkeiten in tary rheology, Univ. of Wales Inst. Non-New- Rohren von sehr kleinen Durchmessern. tonian Fluid Mechanics, Aberystwyth, 2000; Pogg. Ann., 1843 Barnes, H.A., Viscosity, ibid., 2002 [2.8] Domnick, J, Steger, R, Ondine Viskositats- [2.3] Kulicke, W.M, FlieBverhalten von Stoffen messung, Papers 8* DFO European Automo- und Stoffgemischen, Hathig & Wepf, Basel, tive Coatings Conference, Luxemburg, 2002 1986; Kulicke, WM, Clasen, C, Viscosime- [2.9] _Svejda, P, Prozesse und Applikations- iy of polymers and electrolytes, Springer, verfahren, Serie: Moderne Lackiertechnik, Berlin, 2004 Vincentz, Hannover, 2003 [2.4] Aydin, 0, Dragon, A, Acrylatdispersionen [2.10] BWV (Bodenseewasserversorgung), fir Haftklebstoffe, J. Welt der Farben, Die Wasseraufbereitung in Sipplingen, 09/2002 VDFZeitung, Dusseldorf, 2003 [2.5] Coatings Handbook, Pressure-sensitive [2.11] Schneider, 5., Rheologische Untersuchungen adhesives, 2001 im System der Calciumsulfate, Dissertation, [2.6] Hagen, G.H1.L., Uber die Bewegung des Bauhaus-Univ. Weimar, 2011 Wassers in engen cylindrischen Rohren, [2.12] Stokes, G.<, Report on the recent researches in hydrodynamics, Report Brit. Assoc., 31Flow behavior and viscosity [2.13] 14] [2.15] [2.16] [2.17] [2.18] [2.19] [2.29] 32 1846; On some cases of fluid motion, Trans. Cambridge Philos. Soc., 1849 (1843); On the theories of the intemal friction of fluids in motion and of the equilibrium and motion of elastic solids, ibid, 1849 (1845); On the effect of the internal friction of fluids on the motion of pendulums, ibid,, 1851 (1850) Worterbuch der Chemie, composed by B. Frunder, E. Killen, U. Rohlf, dv, Miinchen, 1995 Everett, D. H,, Basic principles of colloid science, Royal Soc. Chemistry, London, 1988 Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Le systéme international d'unités, 6° éd., Sévres, 1991 Pahl, M, Gleissle, W, Laun, H-M., Praktische Rheologie der Kunststoffe und Elastomere, VDI, Dusseldorf, 1995 Reiner, M., Deformation, strain and flow, Lewis, London, 1960 (in German: Rheologie in elementarer Darstellung, Hanser, Munchen, 1968/1969, 2. Aufl) Newton, 1, Philosophiae naturalis principia ‘mathematica (“Principia”), London, 1687 Bernoulli, D,, Hydrodynamica sive de viribus et motibus fluidorum commentarii ("Hydro- dynamica’), Dulsecker, Straburg, 1738 Euler, L, Scientia navelis, 1749; Principes géneraux du mouvement des fluides, Mém. [221] [222] 2.23] [2.24] [2.25] [2.26] [227] [2.28] [2.29] ‘Acad. Sci, Berlin, 1755; Théorie complette de la construction et de la manoevre des vaisseaux, 1773 Bernoulli, Joh., Hydraulica, 1740 Navier, C.L.M.H,, Mémoire sur les lois du mouvement des fluides, Acad. Sci, Paris, 1822 Malkin, A, Isayev, A.1, Rheology — concepts, methods, and applications, Chem Tec, Toronto, 2006 Enidine, Orchard Park, product information Mewis,j, Wagner, N.j, Colloidal suspension rheology, Cambridge (UK) Univ. Press, 2012 Cousot, P, Rhéophysique - la matiére dans tous ses états, EDP Sciences, Les Ulis, 2012 (in English: Rheophysics — matter in all its states, Springer, Cham, 2014) Delay, M., Nanopartikel in aquatischen Sys- temen, Springer Vieweg, Wiesbaden, 2015 Meichsner, C, Mezger, T, Schroder, J, Lackeigenschaften messen und steuern, Vincentz, Hannover, 2015 (2% ed.) Bellman, C., Caspari, A, Moitzi, C, Babick, F: Dynamic and electrophoretic light scattering (DLS, ELS), Anton Paar, Graz, 2019 (in German: Dynamische und elektro- phoretische Lichtstreuung (DLS, ELS), ‘Anton Paar, Graz, 2018)Basic principles 3. Rotational tests In this chapter are explained the following terms given in bold: Liquids Solids (ideal) viscous viscoelastic viscoelastic (ideal) elastic flow behavior flow behavior deformation behavior deformation behavior viscosity law Maxwell model Kelvin/Voigt model _elasticity law (according to Newton) (according to Hooke) flow/viscosity curves creep tests, relaxation tests, oscillatory tests 3.1 Introduction In Chapter 2 using the viscosity law, the rheological background of fluids showing ideal-viscous flow behavior was explained. Chapter 3 concentrates on rheometry: The performance of rotation- al tests to investigate the mostly more complex, non-Newtonian flow behavior of liquids, solutions, melts and dispersions (suspensions, emulsions, foams) used in daily practice in industry will be described here in detail. Typical measuring geometries or measuring systems, respectively, are described in Chapter 10. 3.2. Basic principles 3.2.1. Test modes-controlled shear rate (CSR) and controlled shear stress (CSS), raw data and rheological parameters a) Tests with controlled shear rate (CSR tests) When performing CSR tests, the rotational speed or shear rate, respectively, is preset and con- trolled by the rheometer (see Table 3.1]. This test method is called a “controlled shear rate test”, or briefly, “CSR test” or “CR test” The test method with controlled shear rate is usually selected if the liquid to be investigated shows self leveling behavior (i.e. no yield point), and if viscosity should be measured at a desired flow velocity or shear rate, respectively. This is the case, if certain process conditions have to be simulated, for example, occurring with pipe flow, or when painting and spraying. Shear rates which are occurring in industrial practice are listed in Table 2.1 (see Chapter 2.2.2) 150 3219 standard of 1993 recommended to measure and to compare viscosity values pref- erably at defined shear rate values (i.e., no longer using specifications of rotational speeds, e. rpm). For this purpose, the following two alternative series are specified. Dividing or multiplying these values by 100 provides further values. 1) 1.00/2.50/6.30/16.0/40.0/100/250 s*. 2) 1.00/2.50/5.00/10.0/25.0/50.0/100 his geometric series shows a multiplier of 2.5, “Thomas G. Mezger: The Rheology Handbook © Copyright 2020 by Vincentz Network, Hanover, Germany 33Index Index Symbols 2D-theology 249, 326 3D-diagrams 59, 167, 180, 186 3D-microscopy 322 3D printing 439, 442 3D printing process 317 BT (intervals thixotropy test, step test) 76, 207, 211 A abbreviations 482 absolute measuring systems 298 acetone 27 acoustic analyzer 355, 461 acoustic damping 116, 239 acoustic wave viscometer 361 activation energy 89, 90, 420, 453 active hood (rheometers) 289, 296, 413 ‘Adams consistometer 345 additive manufacturing 439, 442, 471 adhesion 19, 31, 97, 154, 299, 335, 355, 426 adhesion testing (powder) 435, adhesive dispersions, adh. emulsions 22 adhesive failure energy, adh. fracture 334, 355 adhesives 5, 6, 21, 71, 100, 113, 122, 160, 178, 180, 199, 213, 215, 225, 226, 255, 295, 305, 314, 315, 331, 333, 347, 344, 351, 356, 389, 455, 456, 467, 471, 509 aerogels, aerosols 21, 214 AFNOR cups 349, 372 agglomerates, agglomeration 45, 49, 75, 172, 196, 258, 287, 294, 316, 323, 325, 428 aggregates 75, 159, 196, 227, 249, 251, 254, 261, 269, 287, 316, 318, 380 aging 21, 205, 240, 412 agrochemicals 5, 263 air bearing (rheometers) 399, 409, 420, 464 air bubbles 17, 87, 265, 266, 281, 288, 349, 375, 385, 390, 393, 454 air humidity 84, 215, 314, 335 air, viscosity of 27 aluminum 101, 206, 272, 281, 310, 311, 435, amorphous structures 218, 262, 316, 320 amorphous solids (glass) 227 amphoteric, amphophilic (surfactants) 248 amplitude sweeps (G” peak) 172 amplitude sweeps 167, 333, 420 amylograph (dough) 460 amylopectine, amylose 221, 223 angle units 494 512 Angstrom (unit) 249, 492 angular frequency 155, 185, 494 angular velocity 112, 407, 494 anisotropic properties 117, 228, 253, 267, 311, 317, 318, 323, 332 antithixotropy 75, 464 apparent viscosity 38, 47 apparent yield point, app. y. stress 53, 468 approximation functions (flow curves) 60 approximation functions (viscosity/ temperature) 89 aqueous dispersions, aqu. solutions 249, 259, 269, 326 Arrhenius relation 89, 236, 453 asphalt, a. binders see bitumen asphalténe particles 240 assembling, self- (surfactants) 249, 262 associates, association colloids 249, 258, 267, 287, 316 associative thickeners, ass. polymers 70, 258, 263, 266 ASTM standards (listing) 499 ASTM viscosity classification (lubricants) 375 asynchronous drive (rheometer) 466 automatic gap control (AGC), a. g setting {AGS) 140, 286, 294, 306 automotive adhesives 160, 178, 180 automotive bumpers 116 automotive coatings 23, 48, 79, 177, 212, 457, 470 avalanches, flow of 56, 305, 346, 347, 348 Avogadro number 448, 451, 457, 465 axial direction, ax. force 120, 336, 396, 410, 436 B ball bearing 408 ball bearings, roll-out-time test of (tribology) 337 ball harp 352 ball measuring systems 304, 437 ball shaped spindles (spheres) 301 bamboo 118 bars (specimens) 306 bearings 408 beer worth 350 behavior at rest (guideline) 423 Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) 366 bending behavior 233, 355, 360, 445 bending testers 365 bentonite (gallant; powder) 68, 137, 427 bi-cones 326, 362 bilayers (surfactants) 252, 269 Bingham build-up test 82, 357 Bingham model function 38, 55, 64, 418, 424, 458Index biomaterials, biol. tissues 117, 171, 197, 225, 253, 261, 263, 312, 316, 321, 326, 332, 350, 379 birefringence (rheo-optics) 269, 318, 323, 460 bitumen 21, 27, 28, 100, 169, 170, 205, 226, 240, 307, 344, 348, 349, 351, 353, 364, 366, 373, 453, 454, 455, 469 bitumen number (pen.) 353 blade coatings 21, 22, 76, 208, 393, blood, bl. plasma, bl. vessels 21, 27, 28, 117, 171, 332 Bloom gel strength 351 blow molding 329, 333, 462 Boger-fluids 357 Boltzmann superposition principle 135, 147, 452 bondings 54,55, 187, 195, 221, 223, 225, 231, 252, 258, 261, 324, 325, 335, 461 bones 101, 117, 443 borderline pumping temperature (BPT) 88, 358 Bostwick consistometer 348 bottle filling process 24 bouncing putty 17, 184 boundary friction (tribology) 338 branching (polymers; see polymers, branching) branching (surfactants) 252, 269 brass 101 bread 117, 354, 355 brittle behavior 99, 106, 112, 160, 169, 171, 176, 179, 214, 218, 226, 231, 314, 315, 332, 344 Brookfield spindles, Br. units (BU), Br. viscosity 301, 453 Brownian motion 25, 227, 249, 448, 456 brush coatings, brushing process 21, 22, 69, 76, 100, 112, 178, 208, 368, 470 BS cups 372 BS/IP U-tubes 374 bubble viscometers 349 building materials 227, 255, 305, 310, 442, 469 bulk density (powders) 429, 437 bulk materials, b. rheology, b. solids 51, 326, 426, 436, 466, 469 Bulkley see Herschel/Bulkey Bungers model (creep test) 126, 462 butter, buttery behavior 21, 22, 100, 112, 226, 258, 344, 353, 354 Cc caking (powders) 428 Cannon-Fenske capillary viscometers 349, 374 cantilever beam (bending test) 365 caoutchouc 192, 450, 468 capillary flow 21, 23, 56, 369, 371, 450, 454 capillary viscometers, cap. extruders 283, 349, 355, 373, 384, 389, 449, 453, 454, 456, 458, 460, 465, capsules 255, 315 Carreau model function, C./Yasuda, C/Gehleitner 62, 419, 466 car tires 100, 116, 195, 450, 454, 459, 463 cartridge extrusion tests 177, 199, 395, 356 Casagrande apparatus 348 Casson model function, C,/Steiner 64, 65,465 model function 65 cast floors (slump test) 346 casting slips 75 casting, thixo-; see thixo-casting CC measuring geometries/systems 272 CD tests see CSD tests cellulose, cell, derivatives 28, 38, 69, 82, 259, 452, 453, 455, 456, 470 cellulose nanocrystals, cell. fibrils 311, 317, 443 Celsius degrees {temperature unit) 216, 447, 495, cement 442 centigrade (temperature unit) 216 centipoises (viscosity unit) 26, 495 centistokes (viscosity unit) 27,495 ceramic masses, c. pastes, c. tile adhesives 21, 52, 305, 356, 389 ceramics 6, 101, 214, 231, 310, 356, 389, 411, 442, 445 ceramic suspensions 21, 47, 64, 83, 75, 349, 357 CFRP (carbon-fiberreinforced plastics) 310 characteristic motion times 324 cheese 21, 100, 161, 195, 295, 299, 305, 345, 354 chemical network 195, 198, 212, 223, 230, 258, 262, 266, 425, chewing (process), chew. gums 21, 117, 169, 223, 315, 355, 450, chocolate, choc. melts 21, 36, 52, 65, 66, 171, 226, 263, 355 circumferential velocity 112, 274, 284, 291 clay 56, 68, 160, 168, 260, 345, 346, 349, 355, 356, 428,445, 458 cleaning agents 5, 263 cloud point (petrochemicals) 88 concrete 310, 346, 353, 461 coagulation 263, 360, 450, 458 coating layer thickness 23, 57, 80, 87, 178, 211, 232 coating process 21, 22, 57, 76, 112, 160, 208, 243 coatings 5, 6, 21, 38, 47, 48, 50, 67, 74, 80, 87, 100, 168, 211, 255, 263, 289, 301, 303, 313, 314, 333, 338, 344, 348, 356, 368, 393, 425, 440, 446, 455, 457, 461, 467, 470 coatings, sheetings (solid layers) 215, 220 coaxial cylinder (CC) measuring systems 272 Cochius bubble viscometer 350 cocoa butter, cocoa powder 226, 427, 443 coffee cream, c. ground, ¢. powder 27, 57,443 coffee whitener (powders) 439, 442 cohesion, cohesive forces, coh. fracture 31, 99, 215, 257, 335, 426 cohesion strength (powders) 440 513Index cold cranking simulator (CCS) 359 cold forging see forging Cole/Cole plot 190 colloids 25, 49, 69, 73, 168, 174, 184, 248, 268, 315, 448, 450, 452, 453, 456, 458, 460 combined motor transducer CMT 400 combined rotation & oscillation 242 complex notation (shear modulus, viscosity) 161, 162 complex shear modulus, compl. tensile mod. 154, 158, 332 complex viscosity 156, 162, 188, 211, 227, 231, 241, 424 compliance (creep tests) 131, 150, 236 compliance (rheometers) 409 composites 49, 117, 207, 214, 231, 310, 332, 363, 365, 367 compressing sphere viscometers 354 compression, c. testers 51, 92, 102, 233, 294, 306, 313, 333, 337, 344, 354, 356, 364, 429 compressive strength (powder rheology) 433 concentric cylinder (CC) measuring systems 272 concrete 310, 346, 353, 461 conductor pastes 52 cone-and-plate (CP) measuring geometries/ systems 283 cone penentration test{penetrometers) 353 cone truncation (CP geometries) 286 congealing point 88 conicylinders 297, 461 consistency 61, 63, 73, 84, 117, 169, 172, 200, 201, 206, 257, 343, 346, 348, 354, 359, 372, 452, 462 consistency at rest 168, 197, 198 consistometers 345, 348, 393, 362 consolidation stress (powders) 432 construction materials see building materials continuous relaxation time spectrum 149 continuous retardation time spectrum 136 contour length (surfactants) 251 contraction 296 contraction flow 356 controlled gap setting 294 controlled shear rate (CSR, CR) 33, 165, 404 controlled shear strain 164, 404 controlled shear stress (CSS, CS) 34, 165, 403, control loops (theometers) 403, convection heating 411 conversion table for units 492 cookies 315, 355 cooling behavior, c. process, c. rate 87, 88, 176, 217, 220, 226, 228, 306, 358, 359, 410 core/shell particles 226, 254, 259, 324, 338 cork 99 cosmetics 5,51, 100, 199, 228, 259, 263, 299, 315, 326, 328, 339, 443 Couette correction (capillary flow) 393, 454 514 Couette method (rotational tests) 273, 279, 399, 401, 454 counter rotation, c. oscillation 402, 403 Coupe NFT 372 Cox/Merz relation 241, 419, 421, 465 CP measuring geometries/systems 283 crackers 169, 355 crack formation, cracking process 172, 173, 205, 216, 255, 262, 332, 335, 345, crash-boxes 116 creaminess (tribology) 339 creaming effect (emulsions) 51 creams (e.g. skin c) 17, 21, 27,51, 52, 74, 100, 117, 169, 229, 257, 258, 263, 339 creep compliance, cr. recovery compl. 131, 150, 236 creep, long-term 21, 87, 232, 435, 449, 451, 462 creep tests 122, 331, 363, 365, 366, 404 critical concentration (polymers) 42, 43, critical micelle concentration (eme) 250 critical molar mass (polymers) 43, 187, 467 critical point of extension 332 critical Re number 49, 280, 371 critical shear rate (dilatance, shear banding) 48, 49,56 critical shear rate (surfactants) 264 critical shear rate (Ta number, Re n.) 279, 280 crosslinked materials (e.g. polymers) 122, 125, 139, 142, 143, 168, 171, 192, 195, 197, 223 crosslinking process 212, 230 Cross model function 61, 466 crossover point (amplitude sweeps) 172, 175, 420, 425 crossover point (curing, gel point) 213, 230 crossover point (frequency sweeps, WLF method) 194, 237 crossover point (solidification, crystallization) 228, 314, 315, 423 crossover point (thixotropy tests) 210, 422 crossover point (yield stress, tangent method) 105, 419, 424 cross-polarized light 318 CR tests see CSR tests crude oil 21, 93, 263, 452 crystal lattice 56, 184, 226, 318 crystalline structures, cryst. zone 91, 99, 207, 220, 256, 262, 270, 320, 324, 432, 445, 460 crystallization, shear-induced (or flow. ind.; strain-ind.) 49, 228, 331, 333 crystallization temperature 86, 88, 226 CSD tests 165, 404 CSR, CSS tests (comparison) 85 CSR tests 33, 34, 165, 404 CS, CSS tests 34, 165, 403 cup-and-ball method 351 curd firmness 361 curemeters 362Index cure rate index (curemeters) 363 curing process, cur. reaction 83, 84, 86, 160, 202, 212, 230, 233, 281, 295, 315, 327, 335, 344, 345, 395, 357, 363, 419, 420, 422, 423,459 ‘curing time, cure time 84, 213, 215, 231, 302, 344 curing (UV radiation) 215, 314, 467, 468, 470 cutting behavior 354 cylinder measuring geometries/systems 272, 297, 300, 314, 454 D Dahlquist criterion (adhesives) 336 dairy products 5, 197, 304, 361 damped oscillation 366 damping behavior, d. properties 116, 214, 239, 312, 338, 360, 450, 451 damping factor 159, 195, 332 Daniel dilatancy index, D. flow gauge, D. flow point, D. wet point 50, 343, 344, 348, dashpot model 29, 108, 114, 126, 456 data conversion 136, 149, 203, 240, 466 de-aeration (liquids, coatings) 17, 87,232 de-aeration (powders) 440 debonding on demand (DOD, adhesives) 225 Deborah number 188 Debris, flow of 56, 103, 305, 346, 347, 348 Debye forces (interactions) 55, 458 deflection, defl. angle 57, 98, 154, 278, 285, 293, 308, 309, 363, 366, 399, 401, 402, 404, 407, 429, 441, 454 de-fluidization (powders) 439 deformation 98, 448 deformation energy 30, 103, 115, 116, 124, 159, 172, 181, 189, 197, 219, 221, 224, 231, 262, 387, 447 deformation rate, def. curve 20, 98, 126, 127, 128 defo testers (elastomers) 365 degradation (micelles, oils, polymers) 45, 167, 187, 205, 218, 252, 265, 382 degree of branching (polymers) 92, 191, 193, 335 degree of crosslinking 113, 192, 195, 197, 215, 223, 262, 266, 363, 421, 423 denaturation process (proteins) 379 density 23, 24, 25, 26,27, 58, 199, 221, 236, 239, 279, 280, 352, 369, 372, 386, 395, 396 density (networks) 196, 198, 201, 223, 236, 262 density, bulk (powders) 429, 437 dental composites, dent. materials 47, 314 detergents 5, 263, 443, Dewar container 411 DG measuring geometries/systems 282 diamonds 101 dichroism (rheo-optics) 269, 318, 323 dielectric analysis (DEA) 326 diesel oils 88 swell 110, 120, 177, 387, 390, 454 ferential equation (Kelvin/Voigt model) 114, 128, 133, 452, 454 ifferential equations (Maxwell model) 110, 144, 146,451 differential scanning calorimetry 233 raction (rheo-optics) 317, 320, 323, 324, 325 ‘ancy index, Daniel 50, 344 dilatancy peak 47 dilatancy, shearinduced 48, 267 dilatant behavior, dil. switch 47, 49, 51 dilatation, volumetric 51, 431, 453 diluted polymer solutions, dil. surfactant sol. 31, 41, 269, 349, 377, 395, 460 dimension stability 198 DIN viscosity cups 372 DIN measuring geometries/systems 276, 468 DIN standards (listing) 467, 468, 471, 505, dip coatings 21 jole-dipole interactions 54, 248, 326, 456, 458, 460 type viscosity cups 373 ct strain oscillation (DSO) 182, 405, 410 ct tension tester (DTT) 364 rete relaxation time spectrum 148 rete retardation time spectrum 135 disk spindles 300, 463 enser tests 355, 356 persions 21, 34, 38, 45, 47, 50, 57, 74, 75, 100, 112, 122, 139, 168, 171, 183, 184, 198, 201, 206, 225, 258, 260, 269, 288, 304, 305, 313, 322, 439, 448, jersions (slump test) 346 ersion stability 198 dispersions, testing of (guideline) 421, 425 disposable cups, disp. plates 281, 296 DMA (dynamic mechanical analysis) 153, 204, 233, 333, 364, 365, 366 DMTA (dynamic mechanical thermal analy- sis) 216, 220, 227, 233, 306, 333, 364, 365, 366 DOD effect (adhesives) 225 dog tail test (PU adhesives) 199 double-gap measuring geometries/systems 49, 282, 453, 465, 468 double-rheometer systems 401, 429 doubletube test 28, 41 dough 21, 112, 192, 206, 218, 331, 344, 355, 445, 455, 459, 460, drag-cup motor (rheometers) 466 drag-flow viscometers 454 drag-reduction agents 263 drawing-sphere viscometers 354 DRD (dielectro-rheological device) 326 drilling fluids 6, 74, 91, 244, 263, 349, 352, 373 drinking water supply 23 drinks (bottle filing process) 24 515Index dripping (coatings) 21, 79, 178 droplet subdivision (emulsions) 51 dropping point (petrochemicals) 88, 228, 456 dry-hard/dry-through time (coatings) 345 drying process 75, 84, 205, 212, 213, 315, 345, 351, 418, 419, 442, 457, 459 DSC (differential scanning calorimetry) 233 DSO (direct-strain oscillation) 405 dual cure adhesives 215 dual head rheometers 400, 429 dual-phase steel 184 ductility testers, ductilometers 363, 364, 455 duplex emulsions 258 dynamic gel point, dyn. gel temperature 214, 231 dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) 153, 204, 233, 333, 364, 365, 366 dynamicmechanical thermat-analysis (DMTA) 216, 220, 227, 233, 306, 333, 364, 365, 366 dynamic oscillation 184 dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) 469 dynamic viscosity 26, 163 E EB (electron beam) curing 467 edge creep (coatings) 87, 177, 232 edge failure (CC, CP measuring geometries) 120, 212, 268, 288, 290, 296, 301 efflux viscosity cups 367 efunction (fitting model, viscosity curve) 63 Einstein’s viscosity equation 456 elastic behavior 17, 52, 97, 103, 113, 115, 120, 124, 128, 141, 159, 163, 364, 390 elasticity law 102, 103, 104, 132, 145, 154, 168, 170, 309, 332, 406, 446, 447, 448, 454, 464 elasticity modulus 233 elastic modulus 159, 364 elasticturbulent mett flow 390 elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication (tribology) 338 elastomermodified asphalt 470 elastomers 21, 47, 48, 100, 153, 171, 197, 239, 295, 299, 307, 331, 332, 362, 364, 450, 458 elastometers 354 elastoplastic 55, 57 elaste-plastico-viscous 56 elasto-viscous liquids 109 electric heating 410 electromagnetic bearing 463, electron density distribution 324, 325 electro-rheological fluids (ERF) 313, 464 Ellis model function 63, 459 elongation 101, 329, 364 Emoduli values (table) 100 Emodulus 101 516 emulsifiers 228, 248, 257 emulsion paints 21, 52, 71, 112, 243, 461, 467, 470 emulsions 21, 45,51, 74, 123, 168, 171, 226, 228, 257, 263, 269, 323, 326 EN standards (listing) 305 encapsulation (droplets, particles) 227, 254, 255, 260, 263, energy dissipation 30, 172, 184, 262, 336, 361, 390 energy of separation (tack) 334, 484 Engler cup 372, 453 entanglements (polymers) 40, 50, 69, 125, 142, 187, 192, 240, 331, 336, 444, 466 entanglements (surfactants) 251, 252, 264, 265, 269 epoxy resins (see also resins) 83, 87, 214, 223, 232, 464, 467, 470 equilibrium shear compliance (creep test) 132 equilibrium shear modulus, e. stress (relax. test) M45, eraser gums 100, 141, 195, 450 esterification 195, 223 ethanol (viscosity) 27 Euclidean body 444, 461, 465 Eurocommit (varnish testing method) 201 extensional rheometers, ext. viscosity 329, 456, 467 extensograph (dough) 460, extensometers 364 extruders 356, 384, 445, 455, extrude swell 454 extrusion 21, 27, 110, 111, 120, 317, 332, 333, 355, 396, 390 Eyring/Prandtl/Ree model function 61, 462 F Fahrenheit degrees (temperature unit; conversion) 447, 495 falling-ball viscometers 350, 394, 449, 461 falling needle viscometers, falling rod v. 350, 351 Farinograph (dough) 460 fats 226, 255, 258, 299, 355, 452 feel on the skin (tribology) 328, 339 ferro fluids 312 fiber formation (spider silk) 262 fiber-reinforced materials 100, 171, 310 fibers, testings on 315, 320, 329, 332 fibers (in pastes) 50, 294, 305 fibers (polymer spinning) 21, 111, 462 Fikentscher K-value 381 filling process (containers) 24 films (polymers, tensile test) 331, 332, 333, 364 finger test 339, 344 firmness 168, 354, 428 fitting function (frequency sweeps, gels) 198Index fitting function (frequency sweeps, WLF method) 237 fitting functions (flow curves) 60 fitting functions (viscosity/temperature) 89 flag impeller spindles 303, 457 flexibility 100, 101, 118, 169, 171, 173, 179, 187, 193, 195, 201, 205, 215, 231, 234, 315, flexure testers 365, flooding process (oil) 263 flotation 31, 198, 421 flour (powder) 432, 433, 443, flowability (bulk solids) 434 flowability (cheese) 345 flow activation energy 89, 420 flow behavior 19, 444, 446, 447, 448 flow behavior, ideal-viscous 28 flow behavior, Newtonian 28 flow behavior, pressure-dependent 91 flow behavior, shear-thickening 46 flow behavior, shear-thinning 38 flow behavior, temperature-dependent 85 flow behavior, time-dependent 71 flow behavior, viscoelastic (Maxwell) 109 flows birefringence (theo-optics) 269, 318, 323, 460 flow (channel, trough) 348 flow cups 349, 352, 367 flow curves 28, 34, 58, 59 flow curves, fitting functions 60 flow dichroism (rheo-optics) 269, 319, 323, flow elasticity 109, 459, 460 flow function (powder rheology) 434 flow (horizontal plane) 345 flow improvers (oil) 263 flow (inclined plane) 346 flow-induced crystallization see shear-ind. cryst. flow-induced effects see shearind. effects flow instabilities 49, 279, 285, 293, 452 flow instabilities (flow cups) 371 flow limit (Casagrande apparatus) 348 flow number tester 348 flow point 175, 420, 423 flow point (onset of pumping) 177 flow pressure 355 flow profile 50, 270 flow range 45, 49, 105, 137, 290, 424 flow rate (ISO, powder coatings) 440 flow rate ratio (FRR; MVR tests) 386 flow resistance 24, 28, 30, 34, 49, 89, 279, 446 flow solidity 459 flow stress 175 flow testers (extruders) 356 flow transition index {amplitude sweep) 176 flow (vertical plane) 347 fluctuation (eg. surfactants) 70, 252, 260, 264 ry 26, 348, 357, 452 ability (powders) 426, 438 fluidization factor (ISO, powder coatings) 440 fluidometer 348 fluid state 25, 160, 169 fluorescence (rheo-optics) 320, 456 foams 74,123, 171, 173, 269, 325 foams, hard 207, 311 foils 315, 339 food 21,24, 100, 112, 168, 226, 228, 263, 299, 304, 305, 315, 331, 333, 345, 348, 394, 443 food gels 195, 198 food (tribology) 339 Ford cups 372, 457 forging 56, 206, 207 forging, thixo-; see thixe-forging forming, thixo-; see thixo-forming formograph (milk gelification) 361 form-stability 168, 178, 385 Fourier transformation 182, 405 fracture energy 334 fracturing fluids (oil) 263 free oscillation, free vibration devices 366, 398, freeze thaw-cycle tests 228 freezing point 86, 88, 26 frequency dependence (amplitude sweep; LVE range) 171,179 frequency sweeps 184, 333, 420 frequency/temperature shift, FTS 234 friction behavior (tribology) 336 fruit juices 21, 27, 263, 348 FTO coating (powder cells) 437 FTS (frequency/temperature shift) 234 fuels 21, 88, 228, 396 functional coatings 255, 256, 471 G Gallenkamp torsion viscometers 357 gap setting 35, 72, 140, 286, 293, 294, 333 Gardner/Holdt bubble viscometers 350 gases (e.g. viscosity) 25, 27, 91, 169, 318, 450 gasoline 27, 88, 382 gear oils 27, 349, 358 gelatin gels 195, 221, 315, 351, 451, 452 gelation 83, 87,213, 214, 231 gelation index (Gl) 87 gelation point, g. temperature, g. time 83, 87, 160, 169, 213, 230, 344, 351, 355, 357, 358 gelation [testing methods, guideline) 419, 420, 421, 422,423, 425, gellants (rheo-additive) 67, 168 gellike state 160, 168, 175, 213, 231 gel point, gel temperature, gel time see gelation point, g. temperature, g. time gels 52, 74, 100, 122, 139, 153, 171, 174, 197, 198, 201, 223, 225, 256, 265, 266, 295, 299, 315, 353, 358, 451, 469 gel soles 117 gel stability 199 517Index gel strength 198, 351, 354, 420, 451 generalized Kelvin/Voigt model 134 generalized Maxwell model 147, 191 generative production see additive manufacturing GE viscosity pipe 373 GERP (glass-fiber-einforced plastics) 310 Gibson falling ball viscometer 350 Gl temperature 87 Glare (composite materials) 311 glass 86, 101, 214, 226, 227, 231, 360, 462 glass capillary viscometers 373 glass transition temperature 218, 224, 226, 227,423 glassy range (frequency sweep) 193 Gleissle mirror relation 468 Glues see also adhesives 38 G-moduli, values of (table) 100, 101 Gmodulus 101, 149 G" peak (maximum; amplitude sweeps) 172 grains 51, 255, 346, 348, 426, 438, 442, 443 granules 56, 305, 384, 428, 431, 442 gravel 56 grease 21, 73, 88, 112, 170, 171, 172, 176, 226, 299, 337, 344, 352, 353, 354, 355, 359, 389, 455, 456 grease (tribology) 335, 338 Greek alphabet, Greek characters 489, 491 growth curve (viscosity) 331 guideline (for rheology tests) 418 gum 15, 69, 100, 117, 141, 168, 169, 195, 223, 315, 355, 362, 449, 450, 454 gummy bears 100 gypsum 24, 432, 442 H haemo-rheology (blood) 117 Hagenbach/Couette correction 393, 454 Hagen/Poiseuille relation 23, 369, 376, 387, 391, 393, 449 hand creams 17,52, 229 hand-testing methods 345 haptic sensation 6, 117, 169, 312, 328, 339 hardening process 71, 83, 87, 160, 212, 230, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423 hardness 355 hard rubbers 100, 132, 195, 450 harmonic oscillation 159, 182, 233, 399, 462 HASE (associative thickener) 259 heating rate 217, 410 Heli-path system 300 Hencky strain, H. strain rate (extension) 329, 330, 459 Herschel/Bulkley model function 65, 459 HEUR (associative thickeners) 260 higher harmonics (LAOS) 182 high-pressure capillary viscometers 356, 389, 392 518 high-shear cylinder measuring geometries/sys- tems 282, 464 ’igh-shear range 45 igh-shear viscosity (HSV; ASTM D7394) 289 high-shear viscosity (via falling rod) 351 high-speed coatings 21 igh-speed stability (latex) 360 high-temperature tests (glass) 86, 227 high-throughput rheometers 471 honey 27,444 Hooke’s elasticity law see elasticity law Happler (Falling ball viscometers) 394, 461 horizontal shift factor (WLF method) 235 hotmelts, hotmelt adhesives 27, 122, 215, 226, 351 HS measuring systems 282, 464 HTHS viscosity 359, 393 humidity 84, 213, 215, 314, 328, 335, 427 hybrid materials 5, 231, 258, 263, 310, 471 hydration shell 69, 324 hydrocolloids 69, 168, 268, 269 hydrodynamic friction (tribology) 338 hydrodynamic radius 69, 324 hydrogels/hydrosols 171, 257, 263, 469 hydrogen (H-)bridges 55, 69, 92, 205, 225, 248, 262, 324, 469 hydrophilic/hydrophobie 69, 225, 248, 257, 260, 261, 326 hydrostatic pressure 41, 369, 376 hysteresis area (flow curves) 80, 82 ICA testing method (chocolate melts) 36 ice creams 117, 226, 263 ICI. C&P viscometer 289 ideal-elastic behavior 17, 102, 124, 141, 154, 164, 181 ideal-viscous flow behavior 17, 28, 60, 124, 141, 156, 164, 181, 264, 373, 375 imaginary part (e.g. of complex viscosity) 162, 16: immobilization (suspensions) 313 impact like loading 21, 184, 194 inclined channel test 348 incubation time (curemeter) 363, induction heating 411 55, 461 inelastic scattering 320 infinite-shear viscosity see limiting high-shear visc inherent viscosity (polymer solutions) 377 injection molding 21, 382, 384, 385, 388, 443, 458, 465 inks (see also printing inks) 5, 21, 112, 314, 317, 333, 346, 350, 395, 448, 471 instantaneous shear compliance (creep test) 131 instantaneous shear modulus (relax. test) 145Index instruments 343 interaction (forces) 54, 70, 75, 103, 187, 198, 221, 225, 250, 261, 324, 325, 326, 444, 452, 456, 458, 460 interfacial rheology 249, 325 intrinsic viscosity (polymer solutions) 378, 395, 460 inverse master curve 240 inverse micelles (emulsions) 258 inviscid behavior (without viscosity) 445, 447, 461, 462 IOCCC testing method (chocolate melts) 36, 65 ionic fluids 318, 339 irreversible deformation behavior 159 ISO viscosity cups 367 1SO cylinder measuring geometries/systems 275, 469, 471 1SO standards (listing) 464, 469, 496 isothermal curing 83, 212 isotropic 267, 269, 311, 316, 318, 320 1SO viscosity classification (lubricants) 375 ITO coating (powder cells) 437 J Jacobs falling ball viscometer 350 jam 305 jelly babies 21, 100, 169, 195 Jenike shear tester (powders) 428, 466 juices 21, 27, 263 Jung check falling ball viscometer 350 K Kasumeter 349 Keesom forces 54, 456 Kelvin (temperature unit) 216, 450, 495 Kelvin/Voigt model 113, 126, 128, 133, 451, 452, 454, 460 Kesternich method (flow pressure) 355 ketchup 52, 73, 74, 348 kinematic viscosity 26, 367, 373, 396 kinetic friction (tribology) 287, 337 Kofler heating bench (resins) 345 Kratky camera (X-ray) 324 Krebs spindles, Krebs units (KU) 302, 303 Krieger/Dougherty (model function, viscosity curve) 62, 465, K-value (Fikentscher) 381 L lacquers see coatings lamellae (e.g. surfactants, foams) 173, 252, 254, 269, 324 laminar flow 19, 23, 24, 31, 49, 279, 282, 298, 371, 373, 395, 449, 453 laminates 307, 331, 332 LAOS tests (large-angle oscillatory shear) 180, 299 Laray viscometer (falling rod) 350 laser (e.g. rheo-optics) 269, 316, 322, 323, 390, 408, 439, 466, 471 latex dispersions 69, 75, 259, 263, 325, 360, 450, 469 lattice, crystal; latt. dislocation 56, 184, 226, 318 Laun, relation of 469 layer thickness 23, 57, 80, 87, 211, 232 leather 315, 463, lecithin 257 Lehmann cup 373 leveling (e.g. coatings) 21, 33, 58, 80, 87, 108, 169, 178, 211, 232, 243, 346, 347 lightweight materials (solids) 207, 214, 310 limiting high-shear viscosity 41, 45, 61, 419, 465, 466 limiting viscosity number (LVN; polymer solutions) 378, 395, 460 limit of the LVE range 132, 145, 170, 175 linearelastic behavior, linel. range 99, 101, 102, 104, 137, 168, 175, 419 linearity limit 169, 171, 175, 333, inear-shear testers 365 linear viscoelastic (LVE) range 132, 145, 168, 170, 174, 201, 333, 452, 466 linear-viscous behavior 168 lipophilic/lipophobic (surfactants) 248 iposomes (surfactants) 254 lipstick 52 liquid bath (temperature control) 410, 453 liquid crystals 253, 256, 269, 320, 339, 467 liquid state 91, 160, 169, 343 Lissajous diagrams (stress/strain), Liss. figures 180, 466 load-and-removal cycle 30, 103, 125 loam 57 Lodge/Meissner relation 120 Lodge stressmeter 390 logarithmic viscosity number (polymer solutions) 377 London forces (interactions) 55, 460 long-term behavior 136, 150, 185, 194, 198, 234 long-term stability (guideline) 421, 425 loss angle 158 loss factor 159, 163, 197, 332, 458 loss modulus 159, 332 lotions 21, 51, 100, 168 low-pressure capillary viscometers 384 low-shear conditions, low-s. range 21, 36, 42, 76, 119, 122, 168, 190, 207, 212, 230, 234,241 low-shear viscosity (I'SV; ASTM D7394) 301 low-viscosity fluids, low. liquids 26, 72, 89, 153, 279, 282, 285, 290, 293, 350, 368 LTHS viscosity (oils) 359 LILS viscosity (oils) 358 519Index lube grease see grease lubricants 88, 91, 228, 269, 339, 349, 359, 382, 396, 452, 455 lubricating grease see grease lubrication (process) 21, 338 luminescence (rheo-optics) 320 LVE range 132, 145, 168, 170, 174, 201, 333, 452 lyotropic behavior 256 M macromolecules 40, 45, 69, 125, 142, 187, 218, 458, 460, 461 magnesium 207 magnetically active 328 magnetorheological fluids (MRF) 312, 464 Malcolm spiralpump viscometer 359 Mallison flow number tester 349 Maltese cross (polarization, rheo-optics) 317 margarine 52,263, 354 Mark/Houwink relation 379, 461 marmalade 305 Marshall apparatus (bitumen) 365 Marsh funnel 373 master curve (WLF method) 133, 146, 150, 194, 235, 421, 423, matrix encapsulation (surfactants) 255 matrix resin (polymers) 225, 226, 310, 311, 327 Matthis fluidometer 348 maximum particle size 178, 282, 287, 294 Maxwell behavior, Maxw. fluid 110, 187, 197, 241,421 Maxwell model 108, 126, 144, 146, 187, 191, 265, 451 mayonnaise 52, 258, 263, 339 mean shear rate, mean sh. stress (PP geometry) 292 measuring geometries 272 measuring geometries, transparent 269, 314, 322 measuring point duration 36, 78, 188, 209 measuring geometry/system, selection of 418 measuring systems 272 measuring systems, transparent 272, 283, 291 medical products 100, 117, 228, 253, 255, 256, 263, 299, 312, 315, 322, 328, 332, 443 medium shear viscosity (MSV; ASTM 7394) 303 meltability (cheese) 161 melt flow index (MFI) 389 melt fracture 120, 286, 288, 293, 333, 387, 390 melting temperature 86, 221, 225 melt (mass) flow rate (MFR) 355, 385 melt volume flow rate (MVR), m. vf. index (MVI) 355, 385, 389 membranes 171, 214, 332, 393 ME measuring systems 297, 461 mesogenic fluids (MF) 339 520 metallo-polymers 225 metal powders 438, 439, 442, 471 metals 6,56, 100, 206, 227, 310, 411, 448, 451,451 metals (tribology) 338 metastable superstructure 206, 252, 268, 319 methylcellulose 28, 38 MFI (melt flow index) 389 MER (melt mass flow rate) 385 micelles 48, 184, 240, 248, 249, 264, 269 ‘micro-canal flow (micro-contraction) 356 ‘micro-cracks 172, 173, 216, 262, 309, 332 micro falling-ball viscometers 350, 395 microscopes 45, 51, 403, 446, 456, 461, 465, 470, 471 microscopy (rheo-optics) 45, 50, 51, 262, 269, 315, 321, 402, 456, 470 microstructures 68, 75, 227, 248, 269, 312, 315, 328, 427, 436, 439, 456 milk 27 milk powder 435, 443 milli-pascal-seconds (viscosity unit) 26, 495 mineral oils 16, 21, 27, 28, 73, 88, 90, 91, 92, 147, 255, 299, 349, 358, 382, 393, 396, 452, 455, 460, mineral oils (tribology) 337 minimum viscosity 87, 213, 214, 215, 230, 231, 232 minirotary viscometer (MRV) 358 mirror relation (Gleissle) 468 mixing process (liquids) 21, 28, 111 mixing process (powders) 427, 434 mobilometer 352 model functions (flow curves) 60 modulus of elasticity (in shear) 99 Mohr circles 432, 452 molar mass 43, 130, 189, 194, 252, 458 molar mass (determination methods) 380 molar mass distribution 136, 151, 187,219, 335, 378, 381 molar mass values 28, 40, 44, 187, 240, 259, 260, 261, 325, 336, 377, 381 molar mass (via capillary viscometers) 377 ‘Mooney/Fwart measuring geometries/systems 297, 461 ‘Mooney shearing disk viscometer 362, 366, 461 mortars 305, 346, 432, 442 motor oils (see also mineral oils) 27, 358 mouth feel, mouth sensation 21, 112, 117, 169, 315, 328, 339 mucus 117, 184, 262 mud flow (slurries) 56, 91, 305, 346, 347, 348 multi-component systems (dispersions) 258, 327, 336 multi-lamellar (surfactants) 253, 269 multiwave test 202 MVR (melt volume flow rate) 355, 385